Promotion Strategy

Table of Contents Sr No. | Title| P No. | 1. | Introduction| 2-5| 2. | Promotional Mix| 5| 3. | Sales process| 7-8| 4. | Advertising| 9-13| 5. | Other Methods| 14-15| 6. | Public Relations| 15| 7. | References| 18| Introduction What is promotional strategy ? Promotional strategy is the function of informing, persuading, and influencing a consumer decision. It is as important to non profit organizations as it is to a profit oriented company like Colgate-Palmolive. Some promotional strategies are aimed at developing primary demand, the desire for a general product category.For example, the Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board promotes natural cheese through advertisements without referring to any particular cheese maker. But most promotional strategies are aimed at creating selective demand, the desire for a particular product. Land O' Lakes campaign—†The taste that stands above. Land O' Lakes 4-Quart Cheese†Ã¢â‚¬â€is an example. The objectives of promotion, the component s of the promotional mix—personal selling, advertising, sales promotion, and public relations are discussed, and finally, the factors that influence marketers' decisions in selecting a promotional mix are explained.Objectives of Promotional Strategy Promotional strategy objectives vary among organizations. Some use promotion to expand their markets, others to hold their current positions, still others to present a corporate viewpoint on a public issue. Promotional strategies can also be used to reach selected markets. Most sources identify the specific promotional objectives or goals of providing information, differentiating the product, increasing sales, stabilizing sales, and accentuating the product's value. An organization can have multiple promotional objectives.The National Pork Producers Council has developed â€Å"The Other White Meat† promotional campaign primarily to position pork as a white meat rather than a red meat. Other goals of the campaign include inc reasing the sale of pork and informing consumers that pork is low in calories and cholesterol, high in nutrition, easy to prepare, and versatile. To illustrate the versatility of pork, one advertisement in the campaign features 21 different pork dishes and offers consumers a free booklet for those and other pork recipes. Providing InformationIn the early days of promotional campaigns, when there was often a short supply of many items, most advertisements were designed to inform the public of a product's availability. Today, a major portion of advertising in the United States is still informational. A large section of the daily newspapers on Wednesdays and Thursdays consists of advertising that tells shoppers which products are featured by stores and at what price. Health insurance advertisements in Sunday newspaper supplements emphasize information about rising hospital costs.Industrial salespeople keep buyers aware of the latest technological advances in a particular field. Fashion retailers advertise to keep consumers abreast of current styles. Promotional campaigns designed to inform are often aimed at specific market segments. Warner Bros. Records, for example, created a compact disc advertisement targeted at the baby-boom generation. In explaining the purpose of the ad, a Warner executive said, â€Å"We believe that most boomers are unaware that our classic recordings of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s are on CD along with the current releases. The ad informs baby boomers that Warner releases not only contemporary recordings but also some of its best albums from previous years, including those by Fleetwood Mac, Van Morrison, and ZZ Top, on compact discs. Included in the ad is a list of classic recordings now available on compact discs. Differentiating the Product Marketers often develop a promotional strategy to differentiate their goods or services from those of competitors. To accomplish this, they attempt to occupy a â€Å"position† in the market t hat appeals to their target customers.Promotions that apply the concept of positioning communicate to consumers meaningful distinctions about the attributes, price, quality, or usage of a good or service. Positioning is often used for goods or services that are not leaders in their field. The advertisement for Murphy's Oil Soap in Figure 13. 2 is part of a promotional campaign The Murphy-Phoenix Company uses to differentiate its household cleaner from its much larger competition. While market leader Mr. Clean and other large competitors such as Top Job are promoted as â€Å"tough on dirt† cleaners, Murphy's Oil Soap is positioned as a gentle household cleaner.The positioning strategy is carried through in other ads in the campaign, in which caretakers of churches and opera houses emphasize the soap's gentle cleaning attribute. Increasing Sales Increasing sales volume is the most common objective of a promotional strategy. Some strategies concentrate on primary demand, others on selective demand. Sometimes specific audiences are targeted. In an effort to build the sales volume of its bodywear, Danskin developed an advertising campaign targeted at women age 18 to 44. Advertisements in the $3 million campaign, helped boost the sales of Danskin's adult garments by 30 percent in one year.The campaign theme—†All the World's a Stage†Ã¢â‚¬â€communicates the message that Danskin garments can be purchased not only for exercise and dance but also as everyday apparel. Stabilizing Sales Sales stabilization is another goal of promotional strategy. Sales contests are often held during slack periods. Such contests offer prizes (such as vacation trips, color televisions, and scholarships) to sales personnel who meet certain goals. Sales promotion materials—calendars, pens, and the like—are sometimes distributed to stimulate sales during off-periods.Advertising is also often used to stabilize sales. Hotels are crowded on weekdays with bu siness travelers, but these people go home on Friday. So many hotels promote â€Å"weekend packages† at lower rates to attract tourists and vacationers. A stable sales pattern allows the firm to improve financial, purchasing, and market planning; to even out the production cycle; and to reduce some management and production costs. The correct use of promotional strategy can be a valuable tool in accomplishing these objectives. Accentuating the Product's ValueSome promotional strategies are based on factors, such as warranty programs and repair services, that add to the product's value. Many Ford Motor Company advertisements promote specific car and light truck models. Some ads, however, are designed to promote Ford's 6-year, 60,000-mile powertrain warranty, while others concentrate on the Lifetime Service Guarantee offered by Ford dealers. These promotions point out greater ownership utility to buyers, thus enhancing the product's value. The Promotional Mix Firms use various elements to achieve their promotional objectives.Promotion consists of two components: personal selling and nonpersonal selling. Personal selling is a promotional presentation made on a person-to-person basis with a potential buyer. Nonpersonal selling consists of advertising, sales promotion, and public relations. The promotional mix is a combination of personal selling and nonpersonal selling. Marketers attempt to develop a promotional mix that effectively and efficiently communicates their message to target customers. Personal Selling For many companies, personal selling—a promotional presentation made on a person-to-person basis to a potential buyer—is the key to marketing ffectiveness. The promotional strategy of Merrill Lynch, a financial services firm, focuses on its 12,000-person sales force. Selling was the original method of promotion. Today, selling employs over 6 million Americans. The sales function of most companies is changing rapidly. In some cases, the change has been only cosmetic, such as when the title salesclerk is changed to account representative but the job function remains the same. Yet, many firms are making significant changes in their sales force. Sales duties have been expanded, and in some instances, the function itself has changed.The primary trend is toward increased professionalism on the part of sales personnel. Today's sales people act as advisors to their customers, helping them utilize more efficiently the items they buy. Sales Tasks Sales tasks vary significantly from one company or situation to another, but it usually includes three basic tasks: order processing, creative selling, and missionary selling. Order Processing: The task of order processing involves the receipt and handling of an order. Needs are identified and pointed out to the customer, and the order is processed.The handling of orders is especially important in satisfying customer needs. The Willamette Industries advertisement points out that t he firm's salespeople take a customer-oriented approach to order processing. They check the quality of the products their retail customers receive, know their customers' market, and ensure that products are available when customers need them. Route sales personnel for such consumer products as bread, milk, and soft drinks are examples of order processors. They check a store's stock, report the inventory level to the store manager, and complete the sale.Most sales jobs have at least a minor order-processing function. It becomes the primary duty in cases where needs are readily identified and acknowledged by the customer. Creative Selling: Sales representatives for most industrial goods and some consumer goods are involved in creative selling, a persuasive type of promotional presentation. Creative selling is used when the benefits of a good or service are not readily apparent and its purchase is being based on a careful analysis of alternatives. In new-product selling, sales people n eed to be very creative if initial orders are to be secured.Missionary Selling: An indirect form of selling in which the representative markets the goodwill of a company or provides technical or operational assistance to the customer is called missionary selling. For example, many technically based organizations, such as IBM and Xerox, provide systems specialists who consult with their customers. These people are problem solvers and sometimes work on problems not directly involving their employer's product. A person who sells a highly technical product may do 55 percent missionary selling, 40 percent creative selling, and 5 percent order processing.By contrast, the job of retail salespeople may be 70 percent order processing, 15 percent creative selling, and 15 classifying a particular sales job. The Sales Process Years ago, sales personnel memorized a sales talk provided by their employers. Such a canned sales presentation was intended to provide all the information the customer ne eded to make a purchase decision. The entire sales process was viewed as a situation in which the prospective customer was passive and ready to buy if the appropriate information could be identified and presented by the representative.Contemporary selling recognizes that the interaction between buyers and sellers usually rules out canned presentations in all but the simplest of sales situations. Today's professional sales personnel typically follow a sequential pattern, but the actual presentation varies according to the circumstances. Figure 13. 5 shows that seven steps can be identified in the sales process: prospecting and qualifying, the approach, the presentation, the demonstration, handling objections, the closing, and the follow-up. Prospecting and Qualifying: In prospecting, salespeople identify potential customers.They may come from many sources, such as previous customers, friends, business associates, neighbors, other sales personnel, and other employees in the firm. A re cent study indicated increased advertising in business publications results in more prospects for salespeople promoting industrial goods and services. In the qualifying process, potential customers are identified in terms of their financial ability and authority to buy. Those who lack the necessary financial resources or who are not in a position to make the purchase decision are given no further attention.The Approach: Salespeople should carefully prepare their approach to potential customers. All available information about prospects should be collected and analyzed. Sales representatives should remember that the initial impression they give prospects often affects the prospects' future attitudes. The Presentation: The presentation is the stage at which the salesperson transmits the promotional message. The usual method is to describe the good's or service's major features, highlight its advantages, and cite examples of consumer satisfaction. The Demonstration: A demonstration all ows the prospect to become involved in the presentation.Demonstrations reinforce the message communicated to the prospective buyer. In promoting some goods and services, the demonstration is a critical step in the sales process. Paper manufacturers, for example, produce elaborate booklets that their salespeople use to demonstrate different types of paper, paper finishes, and graphic techniques. The demonstration allows salespeople to show art directors, designers, printers, and other potential customers what different paper specimens look like when they are printed. Handling Objections: Many salespeople fear objections from the prospect because they view them as a rebuke.Actually, such objections should be welcomed, because they allow additional points in support of the sale and to answer questions the consumer has about the good or service to be presented by the sales representative. The Closing: The closing is the critical point in selling—the time at which the seller actua lly asks the prospect to buy the product. The seller should watch for signals that the prospect is ready to buy. For example, if a prospect starts discussing where the new equipment would fit in the plant system they are inspecting, it should give the sales agent a signal to attempt to close the sale.Effective closing techniques might be that the salesclerk can ask the prospect directly or propose alternative purchases. Or the salesperson may do something that implies the sale has been completed, such as walking toward a cash register. This forces the prospect to say no if they do not want to complete the sale. The Follow-Up: After-sale activities are very important in determining whether a customer will buy again later. After the prospect agrees to buy, the salesperson should complete the order processing quickly and efficiently and reassure the customer about the purchase decision.Later, the salesperson should check with the customer to determine whether the good or service is sat isfactory. Many firms employ telemarketers to conduct post-sale activities. Telemarketing: is a personal selling approach conducted entirely by telephone. Telemarketers employed by the Apple Bank for Savings in New York make follow up calls to customers to measure their reaction to the bank's services. Telemarketers also perform other functions in the sales process. At Apple Bank, they handle customer inquiries and help market the bank's financial services.For example, telemarketers call customers when their certificates of deposit are about to mature and suggest other savings alternatives. Advertising For many firms, advertising is the most effective type of nonpersonal promotion. Advertising is a paid, non personal sales communication usually directed at a large number of potential buyers. Firms in the United States account for about half of worldwide advertising expenditures. U. S. marketers spend more than $100 billion each year, or about $420 for each man, woman, and child.The nation's leading advertisers are Philip Morris; Procter & Gamble; General Motors; Sears, Roebuck; and Ford Motor Company, each of which spends more than $1 billion on advertising annually. Advertising expenditures can vary considerably from industry to industry and company to company. In the nonresidential general building contracting industry, for instance, advertising spending amounts to only two-tenths of 1 percent of sales. At the other extreme is the retail mail-order house industry, which spends 14 percent of sales on advertising. Types of AdvertisingThe two basic types of advertising are product and institutional. Product advertising involves the selling of a good or service. Advertisements for Nike Air shoes, Marriott hotels, and Packard Bell computers would be classified as product advertising. Institutional advertising: involves the promotion of a concept, idea, or philosophy, or the goodwill of an industry, company, organization, or government entity. For example, Texas p romoted tourism with the theme: â€Å"Visit a country where the natives are friendly and the language barrier is easily overcome. Institutional advertising by profit-seeking firms is called corporate advertising. A form of institutional advertising that is growing in importance, advocacy advertising supports a specific viewpoint on a public issue. Its purpose is to influence public opinion and/or the legislative process. Advocacy advertising is used by many nonprofit organizations. For example, advertisements by the National Rifle Association support Americans' constitutional right to keep and bear arms and speak out against the passage of gun-control laws.The Chemical Bank advertisement an example of a corporate advocacy advertisement. The ad expresses Chemical Bank's viewpoint concerning a current law that prohibits commercial banks from competing in the securities underwriting market. Advocacy advertising is sometimes referred to as cause advertising. Advertising and the Product Life Cycle Product and institutional advertising can be subdivided by its purposes: to inform, persuade, or remind. Informative advertising, intended to build initial demand for a product, is used in the introductory phase of the product life cycle.When Johnson ; Johnson introduced its Acuvue disposable contact lens—the nation's first disposable lens—it launched a massive advertising campaign directed at consumers and eye-care professionals to explain the health benefits of using the new product. Persuasive advertising attempts to improve the competitive status of a product, institution, or concept. It is used in the growth and maturity stages of the product life cycle. The Kinder-Care advertisement in Figure 13. 7 is an example of persuasive advertising. Since it was established in 1969, Kinder-Care used informational ads that promoted the centers' hours and programs.But now that the company has grown to almost 1,400 centers and competitors such as La Petite Academy, Children's World, and Gerber Children's Center have entered the market, Kinder-Care has shifted to a persuasive advertising approach. The theme of the campaign—†The Joys of Kinder-Care†Ã¢â‚¬â€promotes the idea of trust, which the firm's marketing research indicated was parents' major child-care concern. One of the most popular approaches to persuasive product advertising is comparative advertising, which makes direct comparisons with competitive products. Numerous companies have used comparative advertising in recent years.The Pepsi Challenge is an example of comparative advertising. Pepsi-Cola ads have used blind taste tests in which a majority of consumers choose Pepsi over Coca- Cola. Although Coca-Cola still leads the soft-drink market, the Pepsi Challenge helped increase Pepsi sales considerably. Reminder-oriented advertising, used in the late-maturity and decline stages of the product life cycle, attempts to keep a product's name in front of the consumer o r to remind people of the importance of a concept or an institution. Soft drinks, beer, toothpaste, and cigarettes are products for which reminder-oriented advertising is used.The Association of Railroads used an advertisement that began: â€Å"Today's railroads, America's great untapped resource. † Even police cars in some areas of the United States carry reminder-oriented themes such as â€Å"We protect and serve. † E. D. Bullard Company designed the poster shown in Figure 13. 8 to remind workers of the importance of wearing hard hats. Advertising Media All marketers face the question of how to best allocate their advertising expenditures. Cost is an important consideration, but it is equally important to choose the media best suited for the job. All media have dvantages and disadvantages; these are discussed in the sections that follow. Newspapers: Newspapers, with 26 percent of total advertising volume, are the largest of the advertising media. 9 Because newspaper advertising can be tailored for individual communities, local advertising is common. Newspapers also reach nearly everyone in the community. Other advantages are that readers can refer back to them, and they can be coordinated with other advertising and merchandising efforts. In fact, advertising is considered the third most useful feature in newspapers, after national and local news. A disadvantage is the relatively short life span.Television: Television ranks second overall to newspapers with 22 percent of all advertising volume, but it is the leader in national advertising. Television advertising can be classified as network, national, local, and cable. Television has a significant impact on potential customers despite its high cost. Mass coverage, repetition, flexibility, and prestige are other advantages. The medium's ability to reach huge audiences was demonstrated vividly by the 1989 Pepsi commercial featuring pop singer Micahael Jackson. The firm spent $5 million to beam the commercial to 250 million viewers in 40 nations, from Finland to the Philippines. The ad was pulled because of Michael Jackson’s image and legal problems. ) In addition to high cost, its disadvantages include the temporary nature of the message, some public distrust, and lack of selectivity in the ability to reach specific target market segments without considerable wasted coverage. Direct Mail: Direct mail is the third-leading advertising medium, with about 17 percent of total advertising expenditures. Its advantages include selectivity, intense coverage, speed, flexibility, complete information, and personalization. On the other hand, direct mail is extremely costly.It is also dependent on effective mailing lists, and it sometimes meets with consumer resistance. Radio: With 99 percent of all U. S. households owning on average five radio sets, radio is another important broadcast advertising medium. Radio, which accounts for 7 percent of total advertising volume, can be cla ssified as network, spot, and local advertising. Advantages of radio are immediacy, low cost, targeted audience selection, flexibility, and mobility. Disadvantages include the short life span of a radio message and a highly fragmented audience.Magazines: Magazines account for about 5 percent of advertising volume. Modern Maturity, with almost 20 million subscribers, is the nation's largest magazine in terms of paid subscriptions. It is followed by Reader's Digest and TV Guide, each with about 17 million subscribers. Advantages of magazines include selectivity, quality reproduction, long life, and prestige. The main disadvantage of magazines is that they lack the flexibility of newspapers and broadcast media, but the appearance of local advertising in various regional editions of national news magazines suggests that this problem is being overcome.Outdoor Advertising: One percent of total advertising expenditures are on outdoor advertising such as billboards. Its strength is in commu nicating simple ideas quickly. Other advantages are repetition and the ability to promote goods and services available for sale nearby. However, the message must be brief, and there are aesthetic considerations. Other Media Options: Other media include advertising in movie theaters and on airline movie screens. Recently, several firms such as Coca Cola, PepsiCo, Chrysler, and Hershey placed ads on videocassette movies.Many firms display their advertising message on trucks, while others use transit advertising. An advertising vehicle gaining in popularity is the hot-air balloon, used by organizations such as Maxwell House, Coors, Eastman Kodak, and the states of Maryland and Connecticut. These alternative media can be employed separately or in conjunction with advertising campaigns using more traditional media. Can you name the candy the space creature picked up in the film â€Å"E. T. â€Å"? Reeses Candy company's sales of Reeses Pieces went through the profit ceiling for this ex posure.As such, many other companies now pay thousands of dollars for this type of theatrical exposure and advertising. Sales Promotion Sales promotion consists of the forms of promotion other than advertising, personal selling, and public relations that increase sales through one-time selling efforts. Sales promotion was traditionally viewed as a supplement to a firm's sales or advertising efforts, but now it has become an integral part of the promotional mix. Expenditures for sales promotion total more than $100 billion each year. Point-of-Purchase Advertising (POP)Point-of-purchase advertising (POP) consists of displays and demonstrations promoting an item at a time and place near the location of the actual purchase decision, such as in a retail store. Video advertising on supermarket shopping carts is an example. POP can be very effective in continuing a theme developed by some other aspect of the firm's promotional strategy. Specialty Advertising Specialty advertising is the gi ving away of useful merchandise such as pens, calendars, T-shirts, glassware, and pocket calculators that are imprinted with the donor's name, logo, or message.Because the items are useful and are often personalized with the recipient's name, they tend to be kept and used by the targeted audience, giving the advertiser repeated exposure. Originally designed to identify and create goodwill for advertisers, specialty advertising is now used to generate sales leads and develop traffic for stores and trade show exhibitors. Trade Shows A trade show is often used to promote goods or services to resellers in the distribution channel. Retailers and wholesalers attend trade conventions and shows where manufacturers exhibit their lines. Such shows are very important n the toy, furniture, and fashion industries. They have also been used to promote the products of one nation to buyers from another. L. A. Gear used a trade show extravaganza to let retailers know about its diversified product lin e. The company, which originally produced a line of teenage fashion athletic footwear, expanded its offerings to include 80 women's shoe styles, a men's and a children's line, and an apparel collection. But most retailers carry a limited number of L. A. Gear styles compared to those of nationally recognized brand names such as Nike and Reebok.To build its brand recognition among retailers, L. A. Gear designed a trade show display replicating the city of Los Angeles, complete with a Beverly Hills Hotel and a 25-foot City Hall. The display includes a stage where dancers, gymnasts, and other performers entertained retailers attending the National Shoe Fair in New York and the Super Show, the trade show of the sporting goods industry. Don Wasley, L. A. Gear's vice-president of promotion, said, â€Å"When we created this trade show booth, it was to let the retailers know we'd arrived.We wanted them to take us seriously. Other Sales Promotion Methods Other sales promotion techniques incl ude samples, coupons, premiums, contests, and trading stamps. Most of these methods are used to introduce new products or encourage consumers to try a new brand. A sample is a free gift of a product distributed by mail, door to door, in a demonstration, or inside packages containing other products. Samples are particularly useful in promoting new products. PepsiCo used a novel sampling promotion to boost the market share of Pepsi Cola in Brazil.Young male students wearing T-shirts with the Pepsi logo dispensed Pepsi samples from refrigerated backpacks to beachgoers sunning themselves on the beaches of Rio de Janeiro. The promotion supported PepsiCo's â€Å"Taste of a new generation† advertising campaign in Brazil, where 50 percent of the population is younger than 20. A coupon is an advertising clipping or package inclusion stamps are similar to premiums in that they are redeemable for additional merchandise. Historically, they have been used to build loyalty to a certain ret ailer or supplier. Contests, sweepstakes, and games offer cash or merchandise redeemable by the customer.Offering what amounts to a small price discount, it can help get a customer to try a new or different product. Many retailers, including southern supermarket giant Winn Dixie, double the face value of manufacturers' coupons. In a recent survey comparing various methods of consumer promotion, 83 percent of respondents said coupons increased the value of their shopping dollar. The respondents gave sweepstakes and other sales promotion techniques much lower ratings. A premium is an item given free or at a reduced cost with the purchase of another product. Premiums are most effective when they relate in some way to the purchased item.To promote its new cinnamon-and-raisin biscuits and increase overall breakfast traffic, Hardee's fast-food restaurants offered the premium of a California Raisin figurine for 99 cents with the purchase of two biscuits. Sales during the four-week promotio n increased 18 percent, well above Hardee's goal of increasing sales 4. 5 percent. McDonals and Burger King promote theatrical releases through their â€Å"Kids Meals. † Trading as prizes to participating winners. The transit poster advertises an American Natural Beverage Corporation sweepstakes in which the grand prize is a 1957 Thunderbird Classic.The first person to spell â€Å"Cruisin†Ã¢â‚¬Ëœ by collecting specially marked bottle caps from Soho Natural Soda wins the car. Public Relations Public relations is an organization's communications with its various publics, such as customers, vendors, news media, employees, stockholders, government, and the general public. Many of these communication efforts have a marketing purpose. Johnson ; Johnson Health Care Company launched a five-year public relations campaign to educate the public on reducing childhood injuries.The Safe Kids program includes a free safety kit for children that contains Band-Aids and other J;J produc ts. The firm hopes the goodwill generated by the program will not only enhance its image as a caring and concerned company but also translate into more sales. â€Å"Building our image builds our business,† said a J;J executive. 14 Public relations is often used to supplement advertising and personal selling efforts. In some cases, however, public relations is used as a dominant element in a firm's promotional campaign. For example, in ddition to advertising, Paramount Pictures developed a public relations program to promote the Eddie Murphy movie â€Å"Coming to America. † The program was designed to change Murphy's image and broaden his appeal beyond his hard-core, young male fans. In the movie, Murphy plays a romantic and humorous leading man, a departure from his familiar tough-guy role in previous films such as â€Å"Beverly Hills Cop† and â€Å"Trading Places. † To stress the versatility of Murphy's talent, Paramount prepared publicity releases for n ewspapers and magazines and sent electronic press kits to television stations.These efforts resulted in extensive media coverage for the movie. For example, several magazines featured Murphy in cover stories, and radio stations gave the movie's soundtrack additional playing time. Selecting a Promotional Mix Selecting the appropriate promotional mix is one of the toughest tasks confronting marketers, but there are some general guidelines to assist in determining the relative allocations of promotional efforts and expenditures among personal selling, advertising, sales promotion, and public relations. These guidelines might be stated as a series of four rules.The first guideline is the decision whether to spend promotional monies on advertising or personal selling. Once this decision is made, the marketer needs to determine the level of sales promotion and public relations efforts. A second consideration is the market served by the good or service. For instance, a drill press is sold to the industrial market, so the manufacturer's strategy must emphasize the sales force. By contrast, California Raisins are sold to consumers; an effective advertising campaign is important to consumer products like raisins.The third rule deals with the value of the product. Most companies cannot afford to emphasize personal selling in marketing a low-priced item and instead choose advertising for the promotional strategy of goods like toothpaste, cosmetics, soft drinks, and candy. Higher-priced items in both industrial and consumer markets rely more on personal selling. Examples include time-share vacation condominiums and Boeing aircraft. Finally, the marketer needs to consider the time frame involved. Advertising is usually used to precondition a person for a sales resentation. An effective and consistent advertising theme may favorably influence individuals when they are approached by a salesclerk in a store. But except for self-service situations, a salesperson is typically in volved in completing the actual transaction. Advertising is often used again after the sale to assure consumers of the correctness of their selection and to precondition them for repeat purchases. Alternative Promotional Strategies The selection of a promotional mix is directly related to the promotional strategy the firm will employ.The marketer has two alternative strategies available to meet these goals: pushing strategy or pulling strategy. A pushing strategy is a sales-oriented approach. The product, product line, or service is marketed to wholesalers and retailers in the marketing channels. Sales personnel explain to them why they should carry this particular item or service. The marketing intermediaries are usually offered special discounts, promotional materials, and cooperative advertising allowances. In the last case, the manufacturer shares the cost of local advertising of the product or line.All these strategies are designed to motivate wholesalers and retailers to †Å"push† the product or service to their customers. The kiwifruit advertisement is an example of a pushing strategy. In it, the New Zealand Kiwifruit Authority suggests ways retailers can merchandise the fruit so consumers will buy it. A pulling strategy attempts to generate consumer demand for the product, product line, or service, primarily through advertising and sales promotion appeals. Most advertising is aimed at the ultimate consumer, who then asks the retailer for the product or service; the retailer in turn requests the item or service from the supplier.The marketer hopes that strong consumer demand will â€Å"pull† the product or service through the marketing channel by forcing marketing intermediaries to carry it. The General Foods advertisement for Maxwell House coffee in illustrates a pulling strategy. The ad announced a sales promotion that tied in with the Taste of Chicago outdoor food festival. Consumers who brought two empty coffee cans to the Maxwell Ho use cafe at the festival received $6 worth of free food tickets. The consumer pull influenced Chicago-area retailers to prominently feature the brand at their stores. With consumers edeeming about 49,000 empty cans, the promotion was so successful it produced record sales and moved the Maxwell House brand from third place to first in the Chicago market. Most marketing situations require the use of both strategies, although the emphasis can vary. Consumer products are often heavily dependent on a pulling strategy, while most industrial products are sold through a pushing strategy. References 1. Colton. M. Jo Ann (2000). The Entrepreneur's Guide to Business Basics 101; Advanced Marketing Technologie 2. http://www. smallbusiness. wa. gov. au/marketing-promotion-strategy/#selling

Ramon Magsaysay Essay

Last Thursday, November 29, 2012, this is the day that were waiting for. I was so excited to have our last field trip as a high school. This field trip is very memorable for me because Clare, Alaica, Kim, Ray, and I are first time to be late in our last field trip. We arrive at south supermarket at 5:25am, and almost 5 minutes when the bus left us. There’s no extra bus for the late comers like us. I feel nervous at this time because we don’t know what were going to do. No one knows how to go to our first destination. Ray suggested that it’s better for us to go home and ask help to our parents to bring us to Pasay. Clare, Alaica, and I, didn’t agree to his suggestion, because we know that it will only takes a lot to time before we arrive at our first destination. Alaica decided to ask for help in the guard inside the south supermarket. The guard teach us how to go to MOA in Pasay. We ride at the LRT, from Santolan to Cubao. After that we ask the taxi driver to bring us in Mall of Asia, where Nido Fortified Science Discovery Center are found. We finally reached our first destination. We felt happy because we didn’t expect that we did it. Our friends hug us tight like we’ve never seen for a long years. My heart is jumping because of happiness. We roam around and we saw several stuff that are related to science like, earth science, biology, chemistry, and physics. We also had a short film viewing on how the celestial bodies are being formed. We are all amazed on what we’ve seen. It’s like you were in the outer space when you start to watch that video. We are all entertained and at the same time we are learning. Before we leave this place, our mind are filled with the new knowledge and new experience. Our next destination is in Tzu Chi Foundation in Sta Mesa, Manila, whare you can found a good hearted persons. The people here are working hard not for themselves, but for the people who are disabled. They do it without waiting for any return. When you go inside, you will found their low price shop, where recycled bottles are turned into useful once. All of the items inside are very affordable and useful. The money that are being entered to them, will add to their fund that supports to their charity. Our last destination is in Galilee Mansion Garden Resort in Bulacan. Here, we enjoy our last tour even in the middle of the hottest of the sun. We don’t care on what will happened to our skin texture, because all we want is to  grab this opportunity to feel relax, enjoy, and have bonding with my fellow students and friends. After this adventurous field trip, we ended our day with the smile in our faces. This is our last field trip as 4th yr. student, that’s why this field trip is very memorable for us. I.Hindi pinayagan ng gobyerno ang pag-alis ni former president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo at ang asawa nito na si Jose Miguel â€Å"Mike† Arroyo.Papuntang HongKong para mag pagaling sa hinarap na sakit ng dating pangulo na hypoparathyroidism.Pinigilan sila ng mga opisyales ng â€Å"immigration† sa pag-sakay nila sa anumang eroplano o sa pag alis ng Bansa. Ngayon ay nagpapagaling siya sa Saint Luke’s Hospital.Madaming napahayag kung ano na ang kalagayan ng dating pangulo,Kaya ipapatawag ang mga doktor na nag-aalaga ngayon sa dating pangulo. II.Para sa akin ay tama lang ang hindi pag-payag ng ating pamahalaan na makaalis ng bansa para mag-pagamot si Gng.Gloria Macapagal Arroyo.Dahil pwede naman siyang pag-gamot dito sa Pilipinas at mag-pagaling,Madaming magagaling na doktor ang Pilipinas.At saka baka siya lamang ay tumakas sa isasampang kaso sa kanya. III. Panghuli at pinakamahalaga sa akin bilang isang batang Pilipino ay ang pag-titiwala ni Gng.Gloria Macapagal Arroyo sa mga doktor ng Pilipinas na magagamot siya kahit mas maunlad ang mga kagamitan ng ibang bansa sa pag-gamot kaysa dito sa Pilipinas Ito na ang ating huling sandali Di na tayo magkaka mali Kasi wala ng bukas Sulitin natin ito na ang wakas Kailangan na yata nating umuwi Hawakan mo aking kamay Bago tayo maghiwalay lahat lahat ibibigay lahat lahat Paalam sa ating huling sayaw Mag dulo pala ang langit Kaya’t sabay tayong bibitaw Sa ating huling sayaw Di na malayan na malalim na ang gabi (malalim na ang gabi) Pero ayoko sanang magmadali (wag kang magmadali) Kay tamis kay sarap Ngunit ito na ang huli Kailangan na yata natin umuwi Hawakan mo aking kamay Bago tayo maghiwalay lahat lahat ibibigay lahat lahat Paalam sating huling sayaw Mag dulo pala ang langit Kaya’t sabay tayong bibitaw Sa ating huling sayaw Paalam sa ating huling sayaw May dulo pa la ang langit Kaya’t sabay tayong bibitaw Sa ating huling sayaw Paalam sating huling sayaw May dulo pala ang langit Kaya’t sabay tayong bibitaw Sa ating huling sayawa

Brand launches by agencies, an arrogant pursuit of tactical Essay

Brand launches by agencies, an arrogant pursuit of tactical opportunism which misunderstands the core competences of an advertising agency or a profitable opportunity to earn respect from clients - Essay Example ly focused on how firms try to capture target markets by setting an oligopolistic trend, characterised by an arbitrary controlling mechanism which tap the instinctive faculties of the mid of customers (Jones 1998a:33). There is hardly any room for argument that such practices are, or in fact should be, assessed on the basis of righteousness or reason. This is because any firm or production house reserves the intangible right to maximise its profit by operating within a legitimate proviso. What is still vaguely understood by the proposition of branding is that it is primarily based on creative usage of available resources, and yet, it tends to expand its scope and field of implementation through quantitative measures. The fundamental dualism inherent in these two mechanisms makes it a complex issue to address. Majority of the pioneering ad houses, famous for their innovative business strategies, adopt not so frequently tried means to promote their brands. It is the uniqueness of approaches to what can otherwise be termed as routine brandishing of various products that sets the boys apart from the men, so to speak. As for creating an oligopolistic market and seizing it at the right moment, brand equity plays a defining role. While most of the top brands offer more than what is generically expected out of a non-branded product having similar attribute(s), the topnotch players disseminate their products in a way that encourage fairness and transparency. Brennan et al. (2007) argue that in our age of heterogeneous competition, the chance of discreet marketing can never be discarded altogether. Therefore, retaining the credibility value of production should always be prioritised, regardless of the business model espoused by the concerned firm (105). In line with this principle, it is imperativ e to give out a fair deal on the principle of equity. It will let shareholders and customers feel confident and assured about the products that they want try out for

Quality Assurance Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Quality Assurance Plan - Essay Example It does not guarantee success every time, but the prospects are much higher with a QA project plan than without one" (Guidance for quality assurance project plans http://209.85.175.104/search'q=cache:QQE3iLkA01QJ:www.epa.gov/quality/qs-docs/g5-final.pdf+Quality+Assurance+Plan&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1) The quality assurance plan will not guarantee the success since success of a product depend on other aspects as well. For example without proper advertisement even a quality product may not be succeeded in the market since its quality details may not reach all the people. going to do, to ensure the quality of your solution. Quality Planning is a critical part of any project. It enables the company to agree a set of quality targets with their customers. It then helps the company to monitor and control the level of quality produced by the project, to ensure that the company meets the quality targets set. By using this quality plan template, the company can set quality targets and ensure that their project produces deliverables which meet customer's needs, thereby ensuring the company's success A Quality Plan helps you schedule all of the tasks needed to make sure that your project meets the needs of your customer. It comprises two parts; the Quality Assurance Plan lists the independent reviews needed and the Quality Control Plan lists the internal reviews needed to meet your quality targets. By using Quality Assurance and Quality Control techniques, you can create a comprehensive Quality Management Plan for your project.QA plan should be developed either along the project planning or immediately after that. But it should be completed before the project is started. Appoint a professional team, planning of the things to be done to promote the product, Outline the QA plan based on the studies, Get the approval for the plan from the top management, and start the work based on the approved plan. QA assurance plan should have enough information to describe project objectives and details. For developing a QA plan following things should be kept in mind. Identifying the customer' s requirements, Listing the project deliverables to be produced, Setting quality criteria for these deliverables, Defining quality standards for the deliverables, Gaining your customers agreement with the targets set, Identifying the quality control tasks needed to control quality, Listing the quality assurance activities required to assure quality. Ensure that the information is accurate and complete. Ensure that all appropriate elements are being addressed. Ensure that the plan identifies the project's Quality Assurance Plan 3 technical and quality objectives, and that the intended measurement and data acquisition methods will satisfy these objectives. Confirm that the planned assessment procedure will be adequate to evaluate the project and confirm that there is a process to identify any limitations on the use of the data. The organization performing the work is responsible for ensuring

Not sure yet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Not sure yet - Essay Example rg) who are believers of the Marxist ideology, thus the maoist are practitioners of dialectic materialism; a theory which abhors capitalism and condemns private ownership of businesses (Marxist Internet Archive). The situation in Nyland is a power tussle between the existing democratic government and the moist who are gradually gaining power. Domestic terrorism is widely prevalent in Nyland and this is a serious threat to GEIL’s business interest in the region. The forthcoming elections in Nyland will be a deciding factor for determination of GEIL’s continued existence in Nyland. In event of success of maoist party in the forthcoming elections; the likely hood of development of an unfavorable business environment seems highly predictable. The threats to GEIL’s business interest in Nyland have already become evident due to some recent events. There have been reported cases of staff members being intimidated by political activists which has caused wide spread fear among staff members resulting in decreased productivity and rise in attrition rate. The local management at Nyland has reported receiving request from local goons for donations in exchange of protection; this has further accentuated the situation creating a feeling of insecurity throughout the organization. There have also been reports of militants infiltrating the unions; this news is particularly distressing as it may lead to worsening of the business environment which may result in a situation where management may cease to have any form of control over workers and staff members. In view of the situation it seems highly feasible that top management of GEIL seriously consider the future of its enterprise in Nyland. Under prevailing circumstances the need for the CEO to visit Nyland is justifiable since important decisions have to be made regarding the future of GEIL in Nyland. The company will have to make key strategies with regards to its investments in Nyland with due consideration of the

Hypotheses, Causal Model, and Operationalization Form Essay

Hypotheses, Causal Model, and Operationalization Form - Essay Example Thus, anyone who eats a balanced diet or eats well will have to live longer than those who do not. C) Draw a causal model of your hypotheses—using textboxes, arrows, and proper notation. If you do not already know how to create textboxes, or resize textboxes, or draw and move arrow, or align plusses and minuses along the lines, or make all of the lines and arrows black— this is when to learn. In terms of layout and formatting, your model ought to look like those in the samples and exercises from class. (Simply bump it all to the next page if you need additional space.) 5. Where You Have Access to Data for Your Time Period and Cases to Actually Measure the Variable as Operationalized Above (NOT ‘hope’ to find and have access to, or ‘might’ find and have access to, or ‘will start to look for’ or anything other than KNOW where the needed info/data is and KNOW you have access to it.) The variables will be measured using the most appropriate methods for each of them. Since they have a direct influence on the findings, the choice of the variable will have to be made after considering its effectiveness. For instance, while dealing with eating habits as one of the variables in the research, the researcher will have to conduct a thorough survey to ensure that the most appropriate and proportionate population sample is studied and analyzed. This will help in ensuring that the research is accurate and valid to be relied

Value Stream Mapping and Interviews with Michigan Steel Company Term Paper

Value Stream Mapping and Interviews with Michigan Steel Company - Term Paper Example The production lead time is also reduced by analyzing the primary data obtained from observing actual processes in the company’s factory. Further, this paper discusses the methods employed in the analysis and drawing of Michigan Steel Company’s value stream map. These methods are vital in the calculation of the cycle time, changeover time and uptime. The number of shifts for each worker and EPE (every part every) is also calculated. The target number of pieces is also recommended. Finally, the paper concludes by giving the results of the entire project and further discusses them giving recommendation where necessary. The value stream technique is mostly used in the design and analysis of information and material flow that will bring a product or service to the final customer or consumer. Furthermore, the technique also aims at using minimal resources whilst maximizing production. In the analysis of this one is required to draw a current state map that illustrates the whole value stream mapping technique employed. This paper shall embark on discussing the current state map for the Michigan Steel Company and evaluate is value mapping technique. In order to successfully analyze the technique at Michigan Steel Company, the entire chain of steel production is broken down into discrete levels of production and information flow. The step by step flow from production is evaluated and the lead and processing time taken to complete the production is also determined. The route taken by the product until it reaches the State Street Assembly (customer) is also illustrated in the Michigan Steel Company’s current state map situation. This paper shall then discuss this process’s methods, results and efficiency. The biggest problem met by Michigan Steel Company was the relevant optimal lead time for the entire production process. This necessitated the team to set up objectives that are oriented towards goal  achievement.  

How did Nazi Germany deploy history to justify their involvement in Essay

How did Nazi Germany deploy history to justify their involvement in the World War II - Essay Example From that period, the economic global depression resulted in hyperinflation, mass unemployment, social unrest by which Hitler provided people like the Jews. He promised peace that was civil, economic radical policies and national pride restoration and unity. Rhetoric Nazi was a nationalist and the Jews who were submissive were seen to be responsible for all the ills of the Germans1. In September 1939, Germany attacked Poland, which led to the Second World War. Almost five to six million Germans died during the war. Most of them were victims of the political Nazi and two hundred thousand were killed in the euthanasia program of the Nazi. There were also many rapes of women from Germany. After Poland had been conquered, Hitler cantered attention on defeating France and Britain. As the war increased, the party of Nazi created an alliance with Italy and Japan in the Pact Tripartite of the year 1940. In the vicious fighting that, the troops of Nazi struggled to make real the goal of defeating the major communist power of the world that was long-held. Germany got itself fighting in France, Italy, North Africa and the Balkans. At the commencing of the Second World War, the party of Nazi and Hitler were fighting to conquer Europe and after five years they were struggling to exist2. In 1939, the month of September, the soldiers of Hitler attacked Poland. It followed six years with Hitler participating fully in the war. It also included the youth up to the youngest child. The Second World War was facilitated by two alliances which were in conflict with each other. The conflicting associations were the Allied side and the Axis nations. The powers that led were the Germany Nazi, the Italy kingdom, and the Japan Empire. On the other hand, France and the United Kingdom including their colonial empires, Soviet Union, China, and USA were the leading powers of the other alliance. The reason the Nazi participated in the

Sickle Cell Anemia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Sickle Cell Anemia - Essay Example 1995, the life expectancy for African Americans is 42 years for males and 48 years for females. Median survival is approaching 50 years. In the population at large, for African American males without Sickle Cell anemia according to the 2001 census figures is 68.6 for males and for females it is 75.5 years." (NVSR) Sickle Cell Amenia's major danger is the propensity to crisis. With fever, dehydration, insufficient oxygen, or a disturbance of the body's acid balance, the number of sickle cells greatly increases. They become log-jammed in small blood vessels, completely blocking flow and preventing oxygen from entering. Then more red blood cells stiffen. Tissues suffer from lack of blood flow, excruciating pain develops, and areas of tissue may die. A Sickle Cell crisis is difficult to treat. The patient needs adequate water to prevent dehydration, and often transfusions of normal red blood cells are required", (LIFE) I have developed mice models of Sickle Cell Anemia and they are being used to evaluate the effectiveness of a cure for Sickle Cell Anemia. 3 My research thesis is that certain people are generally disposed to the thiocynate deficiency (a deficiency of vitamin B12-a necessary component to healthy blood cells.) This deficiency causes blood cells to sickle, and it the root cause of Sickle Cell Anemia and its resulting complications. Our Sickle Cell Anemia mice models show that once this thiocynate is present in significant quantity in the blood system, there is an... Genes and Disease, Blood and Lymph Diseases, National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, National Institute of Health, Sickle Cell Disease Association of America, Retrieved on line on April 13, 2006 from, www.ascaa.org

Battle of the Bulge Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Battle of the Bulge - Research Paper Example However, the Germans were crushed by the joint armed forces of Bastogne and St. Vith that placed the Germans’ communication lines in danger. The St. Vith encounter chose time over space: the time required to set up a strong shoulder defense on the Bulge’s northern border.2 The triumphant defense of Bastogne’s transportation center pushed German forces into combat grounds and reset the German timeframe.3 Military Tactics of the Battle of the Bulge In the two encounters, a combination of intense and mild defenses was employed successfully. In the northern side, airborne and infantry forces reinforced the 7th Armored Division stronghold in St. Vith. The 7th Armored Division’s triumphant fighting withdrawal provided an opportunity to assemble a solid defense on the Bulge’s north border.4 This disrupted the timeframe for the German offensive and its troops were not able to recover their strength; hence, the German circumstances for victory were never att ained. In the southern side, the traces of the 9th and 10th Armored Divisions, as well as their crude weaponry and a number of VIII Corps Artillery forces, gave the armament support and mobile counter-offensive force for the overpowered units of the 101st Airborne Division enclosed in Bastogne.5 The Bastogne stronghold demonstrates how a light force, reinforced with armament support and well-equipped forces, was successful in holding out the assault of heavily armed German troops. This case was adopted as part of the basis for the creation of U.S. light divisions and to validate their importance in a NATO context.6 As a proof to the value of a combination of light and heavy forces in mid- to- high-level fighting, combinations of heavy and light forces have been required for the circumstances of the Army’s Battle Command Training Program’s automated, HQ practice combat games. They have been proven successful in Iraq as well.7 The capacity to envision the combat zone, as in the focused lens of Napoleon, that defines an exceptional war leader, was shown by General Anthony McAuliffe, Troy Middleton, and Bruce Clarke in making a decision where to battle and how to carry it out. Middleton understood that controlling the major road intersections of Bastogne and St. Vith for the longest possible time was needed to ward off the German forces.8 By choosing to defend these road intersections, Middleton identified the battle’s operational direction. McAuliffe and Clarke contributed to the cause by understanding the enormity of their task and by confronting excellent strategic battles to control those road intersections and hinder the opponent.9 Another official who was able envision the combat zone and who had an outstanding hold of his battleground was Lt. Col. Creighton W. Abrams, who led the ultimate attack that released Bastogne.10 According to a report: Abrams, when he got into combat, knew everything was going on. How he knew it, nobody knew, bu t he did. He knew where every tank was. He knew where every piece of equipment was, and he could command and move his outfit and always defeat the enemy in front of him. It was just that simple.11 Abrams undoubtedly had situational understanding and a general working image of what was taking place. Although Middleton and his commanding officers were able to envision the combat zone after the Germans revealed their plan, the German deception scheme was

Mule Killers Essay Example for Free

Mule Killers Essay â€Å"Mule Killers†, 2004 by Lydia Peele is the gripping story of love and the difficulties around it. It deals with issues such as fatherhood, friendship and marriage, including the conflicts surrounding these. Lydia Peele presents the story of a father telling his son, who is the narrator, an anecdote from his early life. The anecdote is an unhappy love story of the narrator’s father’s love life, and the relationship to the narrator’s grandfather. In a story with its roots in rural America, a much deeper story appears. This is a story of love, hope and the decisions of life. It is the story of the struggles and difficulties that are a part of life. The story, set in the countryside of the USA, presents a group of interesting characters with strong personalities, that each have their way of participating to the story. It is especially the father and the grandfather that have great significance to the Lydia Peele’s short story. The grandfather is presented as a man who is afraid of letting go of his usual surroundings and habits. This is seen on line 77-78, page 4. The grandfather tells the father: †You’re gonna see a future I can’t even stretch my mind around. Not any of it. I can’t even begin to imagine†. The fact that he has such difficulties imagining the future, points towards the conclusion that he would rather live in the present. He would rather live his old fashioned life and not worry about the future. The grandfather’s way of thinking seems old fashioned and generally conservative. When his son explains how he accidentally impregnated a young woman, without having any intentions of marrying her, the conservatism shines through. The grandfather replies on line 86-87, page 4â€Å"This is wrong†¦You got no choice but to take care of it. This is wrong†. The two different worlds of son and father clash, and the true differences are shown. Even though father and son look upon the world with different points of view, the son still has massive respect for his old man. His father is actually his role model, which is also shown throughout the text: â€Å"My father has his father’s height, and he carries it apologetically†(line 7, page 2). The word â€Å"apolegitacally† points towards the fact that the son is aware of the superiority that his father possesses. The son has difficulties living up to his father and his way of life. He wants to possess his father’s ability to show no emotion and how to be â€Å"a real man†. He hides the feelings that strong men traditionally do not feel: He is trying hard to keep certain things inside his chest: things like fear, sadness, and uncertainty†. (line 7-9, page2). This could very likely be a typical trend of the time and environment that the story takes place in. The final main character in the anecdote is the narrator, who is the son to the young man with love problems in the short story. The son is a first person narrator, so the point of view is limited to him. His main function is to tell the story. An actual presentation of his personality is not included. As stated earlier, the setting has great importance for the personalities of the main characters in the story. The setting is in Nashville, just before industrialization modernized the farming life with tractors. The father in the story carries typical traits of a farmer dedicated to old norms, such as no illegitimate children. A possible explanation of this could be that the state of Tennessee is located in the Bible belt, which is known as a highly religious area. There are also other elements of the setting that point out the religious beliefs that the two main characters have: â€Å"At church she always sits with the same girl† (line 14), page 2. The use of the adverb â€Å"always† proves that the son and father attend church on a regular basis. Whilst reading â€Å"Mule Killers† several obvious themes jump out on the page. The main theme seen in the short story is the generational difference between father and son. As stated earlier, the father tries to hold on to his old norms and principals, whereas the son believes in a modern way of life. The difference is illustrated when the son decides not to marry the girl whom he impregnated. The father regards this as uncaring and irresponsible. The views of the son seem to relate to the modern world of today. It becomes more and more ordinary to have a baby outside of marriage without the intentions of helping the mother nurture the child. A specific example is seen in MTV’s â€Å"Teenage Mom† television program where several teenage girls give birth. The program also shows the way the father typically tends to leave the mother after birth. If this had happened in the time where the â€Å"Mule Killers† takes place or prior to it, it would have had major consequences for the father of the child. One can therefore conclude that the times constantly change and some people will always be â€Å"caught† in the past, which in this case is the father. This could also be a possible message of the story. The message could be that norms change throughout history, but not all people follow the change. Regardless of this, it is still important to respect the people who have a hard time dealing with the future. Lydia Peele manages to take the reader on a journey of love and the relationship between the narrator’s father and grandfather. She also shows the reader the different norms and beliefs that the two generations have, and the clashes than can rise to the surface due to this. She also presents the stereotypical religious middle class farmer at this time. This is done by using a small farmer town located in the Bible belt as a setting. The short story is a touching and mind bobbling tale portraying the relationship between two sets of father and son. It tells the tale of the relationship between the narrator’s father and grandfather. The relationship between the narrator’s father and grandfather is presented as a relationship built on a general respect for the elderly. The narrator’s father respects the grandfather since he listens to what he says, and obeys the rules that the grandfather upholds. It is also the tale of how the setting, which is the farmer community in the US during the industrialization, has a major importance for the outcome of the story. The highly religious setting is represented in the Narrator’s grandfather’s point of view regarding childbirth. All in all the short story shows the difficulties surrounding love and how to deal with it in a sensible matter.

Phylogenetic Analyses of S. Kinabaluensis

Phylogenetic Analyses of S. Kinabaluensis Based on the results obtain from both phylogenetic analyses, the putative parents of S. kinabaluensis are related to two different lineages. In one case, clones #1, #7, #8, #9, and #10 appear to be related to a lineage that includes S. crenata and S. nitidus (Clade 1). In the other case, clones #4 and #6 are closely related to S. alabensis (Clade2) (Figure 12, Figure 13). From both the MP and ML, it shows that S. kinabaluensis is most closely related to S. alabensis where they are aligned together in both tree. Even though the consensus tree has an inclusive low level of resolution and bootstrap support (listed above branches) (Figure 12, Figure 13), the results are in agreement with previous analyses based on ETS and ITS sequence distinction (Shafreena, 2012) suggested that the S. alabensis as one of the potential parents since the polymorphic sites observed are additive between S. alabensis and the potential parents (Shafreena, 2012). However, there is not enough support for this relationship. More data are needed to positively confirm the result. From the phylogenetic analyses, both trees of MP and ML yielded similar results (56% MP, 60% ML). The results of lineage that related to the S. crenata and S. nitidus (Clade 1) are considered as not supported and unresolved due to the low bootstrap value. Therefore, the morphological differences between these two species with S. kinabaluensis were not further evaluated in this study. As for the other lineage, it shows that S. alabensis could be one of the potential parents of S. kinabaluensis although with low bootstrap support value (Clade 2). Therefore, the vegetative and reproductive parts of these two species were observed closely and compared to find out if there is any similarity to support the result of the phylogenetic analysis. As already noted, the distinguishing feature of S. kinabaluensis is that this plant is covered with white stellate hairs on the vegetative and reproductive parts. Based on morphological observation, vegetative parts of S. alabensis are glabrous. However, the reproductive parts especially the inflorescence, branches, peduncles and pedicels do have sparse hairs. Further morphological analysis based on the reproductive parts of both species could not be further observed due to the flowering and fruiting stage while conducting this study. The specimens examined for S. kinabaluensis only had fruits, and as for S. alabensis, the specimens examined were just past flowering and there is no fruit seen. However, the leaf margin which is toothed (only towards the apex) is shared between these two species. Based on the morphological observation and study by Shafreena (2012), the corymb-like inflorescence is also shared by these two species. Therefore, these morphological similarities somehow do support the phylogenetic analyses. A study by Mallet (2007) has mention that in a hybrid speciation, it means that hybridization has had a principal role in the origin of a new species. The derived species initially have exactly one genome from each parent, a 50% contribution from each, although, in older polyploids, recombination and gene conversion may ultimately lead to unequal contributions (Mallet, 2007). However, Arnold (1997) confines the opposite view as, in his opinion, hybrids are often more fit due, not only to the intermix of genotypes from the parents, but also due to the fact that hybridization often creates novel genotypes that may be more fit under certain environmental conditions, particularly disturbed or novel environmental conditions. In this study, the potential parents of S. kinabaluensis still in a question. Therefore, the features and characteristics of S. kinabaluensis could not be fully determined and examined thoroughly. The features and characteristics of S. kinabaluensis might be inherited by the other parents or maybe it is because of the evolution undergoes by the plant itself for its own adaptation to the surrounding. Other than that, the type and phase of elevation of S. kinabaluensis and S. alabensis are more or less to each other which are 1986-2254 m and 1500-1800 m above sea level, respectively. There is not much difference in distance of elevation between this two species and therefore, increase the probability of S. alabensis as one of the putative parents of S. kinabaluensis. However, it seems that the phase of elevation of S. kinabaluensis is higher compared to S. alabensis. Based on this elevation data, it can be correlates with the facts of hybrid speciation. A study by Chase et al. (2010) has stated that once a hybrid species is developed, they faced ecological challenges. When they do become established, there are several potential reasons why they succeed: a) they exhibit transgressive traits (novel mixtures of those exhibited by their parents) that assist their existence in habitats in which neither of their parents can grow, conferring the isolation needed to avoid their reabsorption into the gene pool of one of their parents; or b) their intermediacy in some morphological traits or ecological preferences allows them to utilize a novel niche, again delivering a degree of genetic isolation from both of their parents (Chase et al., 2010). Often such hybrids can only exploit the ecological transition zone between those of their parents, which places them near one or both parents and which may be so inadequate in area that they cannot form viable populations and this intermediates are unlikely to form viable species in their own right (Chase et al., 2010). In this case, the S. kinabaluensis populations grows on a higher elevation compared to S. alabensis, showing that this hybrid species forming a populations near to their parents but with slightly different ecological changes based on the lower temperature at higher elevation. Several lines of molecular evidence support that S. kinabaluensis is of hybrid origin. First, 14 and 16 polymorphic sites for each of two accessions were discovered in the ETS and ITS region (Shafreena, 2012). Based on observation of polymorphic sites of Schefflera species showed that there are 14 species that have between 1-3 polymorphic sites except for S. avenis that has 5 polymorphic sites (Shafreena, 2012). Thus, the presence of 14-16 polymorphic sites of S. kinabaluensis showed an unusual condition (Shafreena, 2012). Second, phylogenetic analyses showed that within-individual cloned ITS repeats were not monophyletic; instead they arose from two distinct lineages (Small Wendel, 2000). From this study, S. kinabaluensis cloned ITS sequences are related to two different lineages. The clones #1, #7, #8, #9 and #10 appear to be related to a lineage that includes S. crenata and S. nitidus. Other clones #4 and #6 are closely related to S. alabensis. Third, although shared nuclear ancestry could simply point out sister relationships with S. alabensis, S. kinabaluensis also allocates nuclear ancestry with a different lineage of species including S. crenata and S. nitidus. To conclude, this molecular phylogenetic information verifies the hypothesis of a hybrid origin for S. kinabaluensis. Quite a lot of additional studies of natural hybridization are needed before the nature of the claimed hybrid origin can be comprehended (Barkman Simpson, 2002). First, it would be of relevance to know if S. kinabaluensis is an allopolyploid or diploid hybrid. Second, artificial crosses should be executed to resolve if there are any obstructions to hybridization between the potential parental species (Barkman Simpson, 2002). For future studies, the limitations in this study should be overcome such as the limitations on the amount of clones produce form the species in order to get a more precise analysis. In addition, a complete morphological description which includes the vegetative and reproductive parts of both the target hybrid species and the putative parents should be done to support the phylogenetic analysis.

Analysis of the Child Behaviour Checklist

Analysis of the Child Behaviour Checklist Chapter II: Literature Review As suggested in the introduction, numerous researchers have explored the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems across the globe. Researchers have also investigated correlates (e.g., age and gender) associated with emotional and behavioural problems. The psychometric properties of instruments assessing emotional and behavioural problems have also been a subject of interest. In addition, researchers have also investigated cross-cultural similarities and disparities among emotional and behavioural problems. The extensive literature that addresses these issues, and which also helped formulate the rationale for the current study, is presented in five sections. The first section highlights the problems associated with epidemiological studies and compares the two main approaches to epidemiological studies, namely the categorical and the empirical approach. The second section provides a detailed description of the CBCL including the evolution of the measure, its psychometric prope rties, its advantages and disadvantages, as well as its range of applicability. The third section provides a description of the theoretical rationale for assessing cultural similarities and disparities associated with emotional and behavioural problems. Multicultural findings based on the CBCL as well as age and gender differences associated with emotional and behavioural problems are also reported. The fourth section consists of a review of the various processes involved in assessing the psychometric properties of instruments and findings based on psychometric properties of the various translations of the CBCL. The fifth section consists of a brief cultural and socio-political description of Pakistani society followed by a description of the salient features (i.e., family, community and cultural factors) in relation to emotional and behavioural problems in Pakistani society. Finally, there is a description of the objectives of the current study. Epidemiology of Emotional and Behavioural Problems Current reviews of epidemiological studies indicate that there is a high prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems among children and adolescents around the world (Costello et al., 2004; Hackett Hackett, 1999; Waddell et al., 2002). In one review, Costello et al. compared findings across several developed countries (including Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia) to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems as well as that of other psychological problems. Based on their findings, the overall prevalence rates of psychological problems among children and adolescents had a very broad range (0.1% to 42%), with varying rates for each category of disorder. Categories include disruptive behaviour disorders (i.e., conduct disorder, oppositional disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), mood disorders (i.e., major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder), anxiety disorders (i.e., phobias, generalized anxiety disorde r, obsessive compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder) as well as substance abuse and dependence. A critical examination of the studies included in the review revealed that variations in prevalence rates may be attributed to methodological flaws such as substantial disparity across studies with regard to sample size and the age range assessed. Moreover, differences across studies in terms of the measures used, the criteria employed as well as the type of informant may also have influenced the findings. In contrast to Costello et al.s (2004) review, Waddell et al.s (2002) review was based on more stringent criteria; studies based on samples of similar size and age range, as well as using similar methodology were compared. Based on Waddell et al.s review, the prevalence rates of emotional and behavioural problems varied between 10% and 20%. Although findings from both reviews vary considerably, the prevalence rates of emotional and behavioural problems across developed countries is still high and warrants serious attention. Moreover, methodological disparities across studies underscore the need for a uniform methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems. In contrast to developed countries, there are few researchers investigating prevalence rates in developing countries (e.g., Bangladesh, India, Sri lanka, Sudan, and Uganda) (Costello, 2009: Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004; Mullick Goodman, 2005; Nikapota, 1991; Prior, Virasinghe, Smart, 2005). Moreover, there is a scarcity of reviews of the existing studies. In one review, Hackett and Hackett (1999) compared results from India, Puerto Rico, Malaysia and Sudan, and the prevalence rates of psychological disorders ranged from 1% to 49%. Similar to research in developed countries, researchers attribute variations in findings to methodological problems across studies, which include an inadequate sample size, paucity of explicit and internationally accepted diagnostic criteria, as well as inconsistencies in assessment procedures (Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004). Moreover, prevalence rates among developing countries may also partly be linked to the social, economic and medical environment. For example, lack of medical resources and awareness about psychological problems may result in parents not knowing how to seek help (Gadit, 2007). Social taboos further compound the problem, preventing people from reporting problems and deterring help-seeking behaviour (Samad, Hollis, Prince, Goodman, 2005). More importantly, cultural variations in the conceptualization and identification of psychological problems may result in varied reporting of symptoms (Gadit, 2007). These environmental differences and methodological inconsistencies across studies emphasize the need for a cross-culturally robust methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems. Along with methodological problems and environmental differences, emotional and behavioural problems merit investigation because they affect multiple aspects of childrens functioning such as academic performance and social adjustment (Montague et al., 2005; Nelson et al., 2004; Vitaro et al., 2005). Researchers also state that there is high comorbidity among emotional and behavioural problems, (SteinHausen, Metze, Meier, Kannenberg, 1998) which creates multiple problems for children and their caregivers. Moreover, many childhood disorders continue and influence functioning during adulthood. In fact, many adult disorders are now recognized as having roots in childhood vulnerabilities (Maughan Kim-Cohen, 2005; Tremblay et al., 2005). Furthermore, recognizing and treating problems early can reduce the burden of the enormous human and financial costs associated with the assessment and intervention, especially in countries where resources are scarce (Costello, Egger, Angold, 2005; Jame s et al., 2002; Waddell et al., 2002). In addition, cross-cultural epidemiology of childrens emotional and behavioural problems may also better inform current knowledge about the characteristics, course, and correlates of such problems, which in turn provide a scientific basis for appropriate mental health planning (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007; Waddell et al.). Therefore, there is a strong need for a methodology that can be utilized for clinical as well as research purposes to assess emotional and behavioural problems among children and adolescents across cultures. Current literature indicates that there are two main approaches to investigate the epidemiology of emotional and behavioural problems, namely the categorical and the empirical approach. There are several differences in both approaches including conceptualization of psychological problems as well as the methodology employed for their assessment. Both approaches will be discussed briefly. The categorical approach. The categorical approach, based on the biomedical perspective, views psychological problems as a group of maladaptive and distressing behaviours, emotions and thoughts which are qualitatively different from the typical (Cullinan, 2004). That is, similar to medical diseases, an individual may or may not have a specific psychological disorder. Traditional epidemiological studies are based on the categorical approach as embodied in various editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 1980; 1987; 1994; 2000) and the International Classification of Diseases (WHO, 1978; 1992). Examples of instruments used in traditional epidemiological studies to derive DSM diagnoses include the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC) (Costello, Edelbrock, Kalas, Kessler, Klaric, 1982) and the childrens version of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (Kiddie-SADS) (Puig-Antich Ch ambers, 1978). At present, there is considerable debate about the validity of epidemiological studies based on the categorical approach. Researchers have highlighted that inconsistencies in prevalence rates may be due to conceptual and methodological issues linked with the DSM as well as methodological disparities among studies (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007; Waddell et al., 2002). Each of these factors will be discussed briefly. DSM related problems. Multiple conceptual and methodological problems are associated with the DSM. First, the DSM does not provide a methodology to operationally define different psychological disorders (Widiger Clark, 2000). To operationally define DSM criteria, various diagnostic interviews such as the DISC have been developed. Unfortunately, meta-analyses indicate that the diagnoses based on the DISC and other diagnostic interviews are not in agreement with diagnoses made through comprehensive clinical interviews, which indicate that, neither diagnostic nor clinical interviews provide good validity criteria for testing DSM categories (Achenbach, 2005; Costello et al., 2005; Lewczyk et al., 2003). Second, the diagnostic categories and criteria provided in the DSM continue to change as reflected in the changes across the various editions of the DSM, namely the third edition (APA, 1980), third edition revised (APA, 1987), fourth edition (APA, 1994), and fourth edition text revised ( APA, 2000), making comparisons across editions problematic (Achenbach, 2005). Third, although the current version, known as the DSM-IV-text revised (APA, 2000), aims at introducing cultural sensitivity in assessment and diagnoses by including an â€Å"outline for cultural formulation and a glossary of culture-bound syndromes† (APA., 2000, pg. 897), it does not provide criteria or guidelines regarding the use of the classification system with specific cultural groups (Paniagua, 2005). Since many of the DSM diagnostic criteria are based on Euro-American social norms, it is difficult to use the DSM criteria to identify psychopathology in individuals from other cultures. In addition, there is growing consensus among researchers that DSM categories need to be more appropriate for children and adolescents of different ages and gender (Doucette, 2002; Segal Coolidge, 2001). Turk et al. (2007) also highlight the saliency of factors such as age and gender when investigating prevalence rates. However, at present, this is not the case. Costello et al. (2005) have stated that the constant developmental changes of childhood create the need for an age- and gender- specific approach to epidemiology. Before incorporating a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies, it is essential to have a better understanding of developmental psychopathology. Developmental psychopathology is based on the view that problems arise from different causes, manifest themselves differently at each stage, and may have diverse outcomes. Developmental psychologists do not support a specific theory to explain all developmental issues. Instead, they try to incorporate knowledge from multiple disciplines (Cicchetti Dawson, 2002). Moreover, developmental psychopathology also includes an analysis of the existing risk and protective factors within the individual and also in his/her environment over the course of development (Cicchetti Walker, 2003). According to Costello and colleagues (2004), a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies is based on the inclusion of certain principles. First, precise assessment measures for the different phases in childhood and adolescence are required to compare childrens functioning with that of their same-age peers. For example, problems such as fear of dark places is considered typical for 6-year-olds but not for 12-year-olds. Furthermore, the developmental perspective would include longitudinal studies to evaluate the ways in which developmental processes influence the risk of specific psychological disorders. For example, the developmental trajectory of physical aggression is such that there is an increase in Aggressive Behavior during the first few years of childhood, but it progressively decreases until adulthood (Tremblay et al., 2004). Moreover, developmental epidemiology would include frequent assessments to determine the onset of disorders. Frequent assessments would also a ssist in the identification of environmental and individual factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology. Although the developmental perspective emphasises the need for age- and gender-specific diagnostic criteria, longitudinal studies as well as frequent assessments, it is difficult to incorporate this perspective in studies based on the categorical approach as it is not sensitive to developmental changes. Methodological disparities. A critical analysis of categorically based epidemiological studies reveals multiple methodological problems. These include inconsistencies in assessment and sampling procedures as well as absence of guidelines about using data from multiple sources. In terms of assessment procedures, both symptoms as well as significant impairment are required to identify children with disorders. This is corroborated by Costello et al. (2004), who report that the disparity in the prevalence rates of phobias (i.e., 0.1% to 21.9%) may be attributed to how phobias were assessed in each study, in particular, whether both symptoms (e.g., fear of open places, snakes) as well as significant functional impairment were taken into account in the identification of phobias. Waddell et al. (2002) state that the use of standardized measures has lead to an improvement in the assessment of symptoms; however, problems still exist with regard to how impairment is gauged or how measures may be combined to include symptoms as well as impairment. Another problem with assessment procedures is that different interview schedules (e.g., DISC and the Kiddie-SADS) and DSM editions have been used across studies, which may have contributed to differences in prevalence rates. Incompatible sampling procedures may also have led to disparities in overall prevalence rates in categorically based epidemiological studies (Waddell et al., 2002). For example, studies such as the Great Smokey Mountains study (Costello, Angold, Burns, Erkanli, Stangel Tweed, 1996) were relatively more comprehensive, and investigated a larger number of diagnostic categories than other studies. As a result, higher overall prevalence rates of psychological problems were reported compared to studies that did not assess as many disorders. Another sampling issue is that reviews were based on studies that differed with regard to the age range assessed; some studies focused on a younger age bracket (i.e., between 8 to 11 year olds), others on an older age bracket (i.e., 11 years and older), whereas some researches included a very broad age range (i.e., 6 to 17 year olds). In addition, there were inconsistencies across studies in terms of the type of informant used; some studies relied on p arents only, some on children, while some combined data from parents, children as well as teachers. Differences in the age brackets assessed as well as the use of different informants may have contributed to disparities in epidemiological findings. Another salient issue with regard to categorically based epidemiological studies concerns the coordination and interpretation of information from multiple informants. Since problem behaviours may only occur in specific situations or with specific individuals, multiple informants (e.g., teachers, parents and children) are necessary. However, since the respondents context and perception have a great impact on the identification of psychological problems, poor agreement among respondents is frequently reported. For example, children normally report higher rates of internalizing symptoms (e.g., anxiety and depression) while parents tends to report higher rates of externalizing symptoms (e.g., Conduct Problems) (Rubio-Stipec, Fitzmaurice, Murphy, Walker, 2003). Additionally, children are not considered reliable reporters of their own behaviour due to differences in cognitive abilities as well as the ability to report their own behaviour (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Despite such finding s, the categorical approach does not provide guidelines regarding obtaining and interpreting data from multiple sources, which complicates matters in terms of how to combine data into yes-or-no decisions about different symptoms. The various conceptual problems associated with the DSM as well as the methodological flaws in epidemiological reviews highlight the problems associated with using the categorical approach as a basis for epidemiological studies. Moreover, these issues underscore the need for an approach that is methodologically sound and culturally appropriate for cross-cultural comparisons. An alternative to problems linked to the categorical approach, where an a priori criterion is imposed, can be a system that is empirically based and identifies problems as they occur in a population. Such an approach would be helpful in highlighting cultural differences in the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems. Moreover, there is also a need for a methodology that can be employed in a standardized, systematic fashion. Although the empirical approach is not a panacea for problems associated with epidemiological studies, it does provide solutions to some of the types of errors in the cat egorical system. Empirical or dimensional approach. The empirical or dimensional approach, in accordance with a psychosocial perspective, views mental health as a continuum. The dimensional perspective supports the notion that all individuals experience problems involving behaviours, emotions and thoughts to varying extents. Those who experience such problems to an extreme extent (unusual frequency, duration, intensity, or other aspects) are more likely to have a psychological disorder (Cullinan, 2004). In contrast to imposing a priori criteria on childrens emotional and behavioural problems, the empirical approach identifies problems as they present themselves in the population. According to Cullinan (2004), there are certain steps involved in developing a dimensional classification system for emotional and behavioural problems. These steps include creating a collection of items that reflect measurable problem behaviours experienced by children, identifying a group of children to be studied, assessi ng every child in the group on each problem, and investigating the data to identify items that co-vary, thus leading to the identification of different dimensions or factors. After the dimensions have been derived, the pool of items can be used to assess and classify emotional and behaviour problems among new populations. Given that the empirical approach is based on the identification of co-occurring problem behaviours in the population, instead of imposing a priori criteria, it is a favourable approach for cross-cultural epidemiological studies. Within empirical approaches, the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) provides a good framework for epidemiological studies for multiple reasons. First, being empirically based, ASEBA identifies emotional and behavioural problems as they occur in the population. Second, it is based on a developmental perspective, has a uniform methodology, and also provides explicit guidelines about using data from multiple sources (Achenbach McConaughy, 1997; Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). Hence it provides solutions to problems that arise in the categorical approach. Moreover, Cullinan (2004) and Krol et al. (2006) state that ASEBA measures have been used more extensively compared to other measures of emotional and behavioural problems, such as the Conners Rating Scale- Revised (Conners,1990) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997). Achenbach system of empirically based assessment (ASEBA). Although the ASEBA has a non-theoretical, empirical base per se, it is greatly influenced by the principles of developmental psychopathology. For example, Achenbach highlights that problems may include thoughts, behaviours, and emotions that may manifest themselves differently depending on the age and gender of the individual (Greenbaum et al., 2004). Therefore, each ASEBA form provides norms based on the age and gender of the child, which enables an individuals functioning to be assessed in comparison to same-age peers. Furthermore, ASEBA is a multiaxial system that encompasses a family of standardized instruments for the assessment of behavioural and emotional problems as well as adaptive functioning. The five axes of the assessment model include parent (Axis I) and teacher (Axis II) reports, cognitive (Axis III) and physical (Axis IV) assessments as well as the direct assessment of children (Axis V) (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). The use of different ASEBA instruments provides a s tandardized and uniform methodology to incorporate information from multiple sources. Furthermore, all ASEBA instruments are empirically based. In accordance with the empirical approach, the construction of the ASEBA forms involved a series of steps (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Initially, a collection of potential symptom behaviours (i.e., items) was derived from multiple sources. These items were operationally defined in such a manner that respondents not trained in psychological theory could use them. In accordance with general item-development procedures, pilot tests were conducted to evaluate the clarity of items, response scales and item distribution. Finally, items that could differentiate between individuals who were not functioning well and their well functioning same-age peers were retained. Multivariate statistical analyses were applied to the retained items in order to identify syndromes of problems that co-occur. Syndromes were identified purely on the basis of co-occurrence, without any link to a particular cause. Subsequently, the syndromes of co-occur ring problem items were used to construct scales. These scales were used to assess individuals in order to assess the degree to which they exhibit each syndrome. Since all ASEBA instruments are empirically based, findings can be compared on the basis of the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems, thereby providing a clearer picture of cross-cultural similarities and disparities of different emotional and behavioural problems. In terms of the historical evolution of the system, ASEBA originated to provide a more differentiated assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology than the DSM. When ASEBA was developed, the first edition of the DSM (APA, 1952) had only two categories for childhood disorders, which included adjustment reactions of childhood and schizophrenic reaction childhood type (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). In contrast to the DSM, the first ASEBA publication highlighted more syndromes of emotional and behavioural problems (APA, 1952). Moreover, based on factor analyses, Achenbach (1966) identified two broad groupings of problems for which he coined the terms â€Å"Internalizing† and â€Å"Externalizing.† As described earlier, Internalizing Problems included problems with the self, such as anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and Somatic Complaints, without any apparent physical cause. On the other hand, Externalizing Problems included problems with other people, as well as problems linked to non-conformance to social norms and mores, such as aggressive and delinquent behaviour. Although all ASEBA forms are used extensively in clinical and research environments, the Child Behavior Checklist is the most widely recognized measure for the assessment of emotional and behavioural problems (Greenbaum et al., 2004; Webber Plotts, 2008). Child Behavior Checklist An essential part and the cornerstone of Achenbachs multiaxial, empirical system is the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Although the CBCL assesses social competencies as well as problem behaviours, it is widely recognized as a measure of emotional and behavioural problems as opposed to social competencies. In fact, researchers suggest that the CBCL is the most extensively utilized measure for the assessment of problem behaviours among children and adolescents as observed by their parents and caregivers (Krol et al., 2006; Greenbaum et al., 2004). Although there have been multiple revisions to the initial CBCL, all versions have the same format and consist of two distinct sections. The first section measures social competencies. Parents are asked to respond to 20 questions regarding the childs functioning in sports, miscellaneous activities, organizations, jobs and chores, and friendships. Items also cover the childs relations with significant others, how well the child plays and works alone, as well as his/her functioning at school. Finally, respondents describe any known illnesses or disabilities, the issues that concern them the most about the child, and the best things about the child (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The second section assesses problem behaviour and consists of 118 items that describe specific emotional and behavioural problems, along with two open-ended items for reporting additional problems. Examples of problem items include â€Å"acts too young for age†, â€Å"cruel to animals†, â€Å"too fe arful or anxious†, and â€Å"unhappy, sad or depressed†. Problem behaviours are organized in a hierarchical factor structure that consists of eight correlated first-order or narrowband syndromes, two correlated second-order or broadband factors (i.e., Internalizing and Externalizing Problems) and an overall Total Problems factor. Parents/caregivers are asked to rate the child with regard to how true each item is at the time of assessment or within the past 6 months. The following scale is used: 0 = not true (as far as you know), 1 = somewhat or sometimes true, and 2 = very true or often true. In the case of respondents with poor reading skills, a non-clinically trained clincian can also admisnter the CBCL (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). For respondents who cannot read English but can read another language, translations are available in over 85 languages (Berube Achenbach, 2008). Development of the CBCL. The first version of the CBCL dates back to 1983. To date, there have been two revisions of the CBCL; the first one in 1991 followed by the second in 2001, leading to considerable improvements in the measure. The main weakness of the initial CBCL was that comparisons across different age groups and respondents were problematic since syndromes had the same names but different items across different age forms (i.e., 4 to 5, 6 to 11, 12 to 16 years) as well as across different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, teacher report form [TRF], and the youth self report [YSR]) To rectify the problem, the 1991 version included two new types of syndromes, the core and cross-informant syndromes. Core syndromes represented items that clustered together consistently across age and gender groupings on a single instrument. Cross-informant syndromes were based on those items from the core syndromes that appear on at least two of the three different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, TRF, and YSR) (Greenbaum et al., 2004). These revisions facilitated comparisons across different age groups and informants. Moreover, the 1991 version of the CBCL also had new national level norms, which included norms for seventeen and eighteen year olds. Apart from practical benefits, changes such as a broader age range and precise criteria for different developmental levels, genders and type of respondents, helped make the CBCL and ASEBA instruments more accurately representative of the developmental perspective of child psychopathology (Greenbaum et al.). Achenbach (1991) also conducted exploratory principal factor analyses of the syndrome scales. Based on the loadings of different syndromes, Achenbach identified Anxious/Depressed, Withdrawn, and Somatic Complaints as indicators of Internalizing Problems, whereas Aggressive and Delinquent Behavior were identified as indicators of Externalizing Problems. Since Social Problems, Thought Problems and Attention Problems did not load consistently on either second-order factor, they were not placed in any group (Achenbach, 1991; Greenbaum et al., 2004). Although Internalizing and Externalizing Problems identify different types of behaviour, the two categories are not mutually exclusive and may co-occur within the same individual. This is supported by research findings that indicate that there was a correlation between the two groups in both clinic-referred (.54) and non-referred (.59) samples matched on the basis of age, sex, race, and income (Achenbach, 1991). Description of the current CBCL. The current CBCL was published in 2001 and covers ages 6 to 18 years (CBCL/6-18; Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). The CBCL/6-18 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001) provides raw scores, T- scores and percentiles for the following: (1) the three competence scales (Activities, Social, School); (2) the Total Competence scale; (3) the eight cross-informant syndromes; (4) Internalizing and Externalizing Problems and (5) Total Problems. The cross-informant syndromes of the CBCL/6-18 include Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/Depressed, Attention Problems, Rule-Breaking Behavior, Social Problems, Somatic Complaints, Thought Problems, and Withdrawn/Depressed. As far as similarities and differences from previous versions are concerned, the current CBCL introduced some major and a few minor changes. One major change was the introduction of the DSM-oriented scales, based on which CBCL and other ASEBA forms can now be scored in terms of scales that are oriented toward categories of the fourth edition of the DSM (A.P.A., 1994). The introduction of the DSM-oriented scales has combined the categorical and empirical approaches and enables users to view problems in both the categorical and dimensional approaches (Achenbach, Dumenci Rescorla, 2003; Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The DSM-oriented scales include six categories, namely Affective Problems, Anxiety Problems, Somatic Problems, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity problems, Oppositional Defiant Problems as well as Conduct Problems. These scales are based on problem items that mental health experts from sixteen cultures across the world rated as being consistent with particular DSM diagnostic cat egories. Similar to the empirically based syndromes, the DSM- oriented scales also have age-, gender- and respondent-specific norms. Another major change was that new normative data was collected using multistage probability sampling in forty U.S. states as well as the District of Columbia. The selected homes were considered to be representative of the continental United States with respect to geographical region, socio-economic status, ethnicity and urbanization (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). Moreover, complex new analyses based on new clinical and normative samples were conducted. However, the eight syndromes and Internalizing and Externalizing groupings published in 1991 were replicated with minor changes. Research findings indicated that correlations between scores on the 1991 syndromes and their 2001 counterparts ranged from .87 to 1.00 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001 Analysis of the Child Behaviour Checklist Analysis of the Child Behaviour Checklist Chapter II: Literature Review As suggested in the introduction, numerous researchers have explored the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems across the globe. Researchers have also investigated correlates (e.g., age and gender) associated with emotional and behavioural problems. The psychometric properties of instruments assessing emotional and behavioural problems have also been a subject of interest. In addition, researchers have also investigated cross-cultural similarities and disparities among emotional and behavioural problems. The extensive literature that addresses these issues, and which also helped formulate the rationale for the current study, is presented in five sections. The first section highlights the problems associated with epidemiological studies and compares the two main approaches to epidemiological studies, namely the categorical and the empirical approach. The second section provides a detailed description of the CBCL including the evolution of the measure, its psychometric prope rties, its advantages and disadvantages, as well as its range of applicability. The third section provides a description of the theoretical rationale for assessing cultural similarities and disparities associated with emotional and behavioural problems. Multicultural findings based on the CBCL as well as age and gender differences associated with emotional and behavioural problems are also reported. The fourth section consists of a review of the various processes involved in assessing the psychometric properties of instruments and findings based on psychometric properties of the various translations of the CBCL. The fifth section consists of a brief cultural and socio-political description of Pakistani society followed by a description of the salient features (i.e., family, community and cultural factors) in relation to emotional and behavioural problems in Pakistani society. Finally, there is a description of the objectives of the current study. Epidemiology of Emotional and Behavioural Problems Current reviews of epidemiological studies indicate that there is a high prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems among children and adolescents around the world (Costello et al., 2004; Hackett Hackett, 1999; Waddell et al., 2002). In one review, Costello et al. compared findings across several developed countries (including Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia) to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems as well as that of other psychological problems. Based on their findings, the overall prevalence rates of psychological problems among children and adolescents had a very broad range (0.1% to 42%), with varying rates for each category of disorder. Categories include disruptive behaviour disorders (i.e., conduct disorder, oppositional disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), mood disorders (i.e., major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder), anxiety disorders (i.e., phobias, generalized anxiety disorde r, obsessive compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder) as well as substance abuse and dependence. A critical examination of the studies included in the review revealed that variations in prevalence rates may be attributed to methodological flaws such as substantial disparity across studies with regard to sample size and the age range assessed. Moreover, differences across studies in terms of the measures used, the criteria employed as well as the type of informant may also have influenced the findings. In contrast to Costello et al.s (2004) review, Waddell et al.s (2002) review was based on more stringent criteria; studies based on samples of similar size and age range, as well as using similar methodology were compared. Based on Waddell et al.s review, the prevalence rates of emotional and behavioural problems varied between 10% and 20%. Although findings from both reviews vary considerably, the prevalence rates of emotional and behavioural problems across developed countries is still high and warrants serious attention. Moreover, methodological disparities across studies underscore the need for a uniform methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems. In contrast to developed countries, there are few researchers investigating prevalence rates in developing countries (e.g., Bangladesh, India, Sri lanka, Sudan, and Uganda) (Costello, 2009: Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004; Mullick Goodman, 2005; Nikapota, 1991; Prior, Virasinghe, Smart, 2005). Moreover, there is a scarcity of reviews of the existing studies. In one review, Hackett and Hackett (1999) compared results from India, Puerto Rico, Malaysia and Sudan, and the prevalence rates of psychological disorders ranged from 1% to 49%. Similar to research in developed countries, researchers attribute variations in findings to methodological problems across studies, which include an inadequate sample size, paucity of explicit and internationally accepted diagnostic criteria, as well as inconsistencies in assessment procedures (Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004). Moreover, prevalence rates among developing countries may also partly be linked to the social, economic and medical environment. For example, lack of medical resources and awareness about psychological problems may result in parents not knowing how to seek help (Gadit, 2007). Social taboos further compound the problem, preventing people from reporting problems and deterring help-seeking behaviour (Samad, Hollis, Prince, Goodman, 2005). More importantly, cultural variations in the conceptualization and identification of psychological problems may result in varied reporting of symptoms (Gadit, 2007). These environmental differences and methodological inconsistencies across studies emphasize the need for a cross-culturally robust methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems. Along with methodological problems and environmental differences, emotional and behavioural problems merit investigation because they affect multiple aspects of childrens functioning such as academic performance and social adjustment (Montague et al., 2005; Nelson et al., 2004; Vitaro et al., 2005). Researchers also state that there is high comorbidity among emotional and behavioural problems, (SteinHausen, Metze, Meier, Kannenberg, 1998) which creates multiple problems for children and their caregivers. Moreover, many childhood disorders continue and influence functioning during adulthood. In fact, many adult disorders are now recognized as having roots in childhood vulnerabilities (Maughan Kim-Cohen, 2005; Tremblay et al., 2005). Furthermore, recognizing and treating problems early can reduce the burden of the enormous human and financial costs associated with the assessment and intervention, especially in countries where resources are scarce (Costello, Egger, Angold, 2005; Jame s et al., 2002; Waddell et al., 2002). In addition, cross-cultural epidemiology of childrens emotional and behavioural problems may also better inform current knowledge about the characteristics, course, and correlates of such problems, which in turn provide a scientific basis for appropriate mental health planning (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007; Waddell et al.). Therefore, there is a strong need for a methodology that can be utilized for clinical as well as research purposes to assess emotional and behavioural problems among children and adolescents across cultures. Current literature indicates that there are two main approaches to investigate the epidemiology of emotional and behavioural problems, namely the categorical and the empirical approach. There are several differences in both approaches including conceptualization of psychological problems as well as the methodology employed for their assessment. Both approaches will be discussed briefly. The categorical approach. The categorical approach, based on the biomedical perspective, views psychological problems as a group of maladaptive and distressing behaviours, emotions and thoughts which are qualitatively different from the typical (Cullinan, 2004). That is, similar to medical diseases, an individual may or may not have a specific psychological disorder. Traditional epidemiological studies are based on the categorical approach as embodied in various editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 1980; 1987; 1994; 2000) and the International Classification of Diseases (WHO, 1978; 1992). Examples of instruments used in traditional epidemiological studies to derive DSM diagnoses include the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC) (Costello, Edelbrock, Kalas, Kessler, Klaric, 1982) and the childrens version of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (Kiddie-SADS) (Puig-Antich Ch ambers, 1978). At present, there is considerable debate about the validity of epidemiological studies based on the categorical approach. Researchers have highlighted that inconsistencies in prevalence rates may be due to conceptual and methodological issues linked with the DSM as well as methodological disparities among studies (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007; Waddell et al., 2002). Each of these factors will be discussed briefly. DSM related problems. Multiple conceptual and methodological problems are associated with the DSM. First, the DSM does not provide a methodology to operationally define different psychological disorders (Widiger Clark, 2000). To operationally define DSM criteria, various diagnostic interviews such as the DISC have been developed. Unfortunately, meta-analyses indicate that the diagnoses based on the DISC and other diagnostic interviews are not in agreement with diagnoses made through comprehensive clinical interviews, which indicate that, neither diagnostic nor clinical interviews provide good validity criteria for testing DSM categories (Achenbach, 2005; Costello et al., 2005; Lewczyk et al., 2003). Second, the diagnostic categories and criteria provided in the DSM continue to change as reflected in the changes across the various editions of the DSM, namely the third edition (APA, 1980), third edition revised (APA, 1987), fourth edition (APA, 1994), and fourth edition text revised ( APA, 2000), making comparisons across editions problematic (Achenbach, 2005). Third, although the current version, known as the DSM-IV-text revised (APA, 2000), aims at introducing cultural sensitivity in assessment and diagnoses by including an â€Å"outline for cultural formulation and a glossary of culture-bound syndromes† (APA., 2000, pg. 897), it does not provide criteria or guidelines regarding the use of the classification system with specific cultural groups (Paniagua, 2005). Since many of the DSM diagnostic criteria are based on Euro-American social norms, it is difficult to use the DSM criteria to identify psychopathology in individuals from other cultures. In addition, there is growing consensus among researchers that DSM categories need to be more appropriate for children and adolescents of different ages and gender (Doucette, 2002; Segal Coolidge, 2001). Turk et al. (2007) also highlight the saliency of factors such as age and gender when investigating prevalence rates. However, at present, this is not the case. Costello et al. (2005) have stated that the constant developmental changes of childhood create the need for an age- and gender- specific approach to epidemiology. Before incorporating a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies, it is essential to have a better understanding of developmental psychopathology. Developmental psychopathology is based on the view that problems arise from different causes, manifest themselves differently at each stage, and may have diverse outcomes. Developmental psychologists do not support a specific theory to explain all developmental issues. Instead, they try to incorporate knowledge from multiple disciplines (Cicchetti Dawson, 2002). Moreover, developmental psychopathology also includes an analysis of the existing risk and protective factors within the individual and also in his/her environment over the course of development (Cicchetti Walker, 2003). According to Costello and colleagues (2004), a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies is based on the inclusion of certain principles. First, precise assessment measures for the different phases in childhood and adolescence are required to compare childrens functioning with that of their same-age peers. For example, problems such as fear of dark places is considered typical for 6-year-olds but not for 12-year-olds. Furthermore, the developmental perspective would include longitudinal studies to evaluate the ways in which developmental processes influence the risk of specific psychological disorders. For example, the developmental trajectory of physical aggression is such that there is an increase in Aggressive Behavior during the first few years of childhood, but it progressively decreases until adulthood (Tremblay et al., 2004). Moreover, developmental epidemiology would include frequent assessments to determine the onset of disorders. Frequent assessments would also a ssist in the identification of environmental and individual factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology. Although the developmental perspective emphasises the need for age- and gender-specific diagnostic criteria, longitudinal studies as well as frequent assessments, it is difficult to incorporate this perspective in studies based on the categorical approach as it is not sensitive to developmental changes. Methodological disparities. A critical analysis of categorically based epidemiological studies reveals multiple methodological problems. These include inconsistencies in assessment and sampling procedures as well as absence of guidelines about using data from multiple sources. In terms of assessment procedures, both symptoms as well as significant impairment are required to identify children with disorders. This is corroborated by Costello et al. (2004), who report that the disparity in the prevalence rates of phobias (i.e., 0.1% to 21.9%) may be attributed to how phobias were assessed in each study, in particular, whether both symptoms (e.g., fear of open places, snakes) as well as significant functional impairment were taken into account in the identification of phobias. Waddell et al. (2002) state that the use of standardized measures has lead to an improvement in the assessment of symptoms; however, problems still exist with regard to how impairment is gauged or how measures may be combined to include symptoms as well as impairment. Another problem with assessment procedures is that different interview schedules (e.g., DISC and the Kiddie-SADS) and DSM editions have been used across studies, which may have contributed to differences in prevalence rates. Incompatible sampling procedures may also have led to disparities in overall prevalence rates in categorically based epidemiological studies (Waddell et al., 2002). For example, studies such as the Great Smokey Mountains study (Costello, Angold, Burns, Erkanli, Stangel Tweed, 1996) were relatively more comprehensive, and investigated a larger number of diagnostic categories than other studies. As a result, higher overall prevalence rates of psychological problems were reported compared to studies that did not assess as many disorders. Another sampling issue is that reviews were based on studies that differed with regard to the age range assessed; some studies focused on a younger age bracket (i.e., between 8 to 11 year olds), others on an older age bracket (i.e., 11 years and older), whereas some researches included a very broad age range (i.e., 6 to 17 year olds). In addition, there were inconsistencies across studies in terms of the type of informant used; some studies relied on p arents only, some on children, while some combined data from parents, children as well as teachers. Differences in the age brackets assessed as well as the use of different informants may have contributed to disparities in epidemiological findings. Another salient issue with regard to categorically based epidemiological studies concerns the coordination and interpretation of information from multiple informants. Since problem behaviours may only occur in specific situations or with specific individuals, multiple informants (e.g., teachers, parents and children) are necessary. However, since the respondents context and perception have a great impact on the identification of psychological problems, poor agreement among respondents is frequently reported. For example, children normally report higher rates of internalizing symptoms (e.g., anxiety and depression) while parents tends to report higher rates of externalizing symptoms (e.g., Conduct Problems) (Rubio-Stipec, Fitzmaurice, Murphy, Walker, 2003). Additionally, children are not considered reliable reporters of their own behaviour due to differences in cognitive abilities as well as the ability to report their own behaviour (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Despite such finding s, the categorical approach does not provide guidelines regarding obtaining and interpreting data from multiple sources, which complicates matters in terms of how to combine data into yes-or-no decisions about different symptoms. The various conceptual problems associated with the DSM as well as the methodological flaws in epidemiological reviews highlight the problems associated with using the categorical approach as a basis for epidemiological studies. Moreover, these issues underscore the need for an approach that is methodologically sound and culturally appropriate for cross-cultural comparisons. An alternative to problems linked to the categorical approach, where an a priori criterion is imposed, can be a system that is empirically based and identifies problems as they occur in a population. Such an approach would be helpful in highlighting cultural differences in the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems. Moreover, there is also a need for a methodology that can be employed in a standardized, systematic fashion. Although the empirical approach is not a panacea for problems associated with epidemiological studies, it does provide solutions to some of the types of errors in the cat egorical system. Empirical or dimensional approach. The empirical or dimensional approach, in accordance with a psychosocial perspective, views mental health as a continuum. The dimensional perspective supports the notion that all individuals experience problems involving behaviours, emotions and thoughts to varying extents. Those who experience such problems to an extreme extent (unusual frequency, duration, intensity, or other aspects) are more likely to have a psychological disorder (Cullinan, 2004). In contrast to imposing a priori criteria on childrens emotional and behavioural problems, the empirical approach identifies problems as they present themselves in the population. According to Cullinan (2004), there are certain steps involved in developing a dimensional classification system for emotional and behavioural problems. These steps include creating a collection of items that reflect measurable problem behaviours experienced by children, identifying a group of children to be studied, assessi ng every child in the group on each problem, and investigating the data to identify items that co-vary, thus leading to the identification of different dimensions or factors. After the dimensions have been derived, the pool of items can be used to assess and classify emotional and behaviour problems among new populations. Given that the empirical approach is based on the identification of co-occurring problem behaviours in the population, instead of imposing a priori criteria, it is a favourable approach for cross-cultural epidemiological studies. Within empirical approaches, the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) provides a good framework for epidemiological studies for multiple reasons. First, being empirically based, ASEBA identifies emotional and behavioural problems as they occur in the population. Second, it is based on a developmental perspective, has a uniform methodology, and also provides explicit guidelines about using data from multiple sources (Achenbach McConaughy, 1997; Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). Hence it provides solutions to problems that arise in the categorical approach. Moreover, Cullinan (2004) and Krol et al. (2006) state that ASEBA measures have been used more extensively compared to other measures of emotional and behavioural problems, such as the Conners Rating Scale- Revised (Conners,1990) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997). Achenbach system of empirically based assessment (ASEBA). Although the ASEBA has a non-theoretical, empirical base per se, it is greatly influenced by the principles of developmental psychopathology. For example, Achenbach highlights that problems may include thoughts, behaviours, and emotions that may manifest themselves differently depending on the age and gender of the individual (Greenbaum et al., 2004). Therefore, each ASEBA form provides norms based on the age and gender of the child, which enables an individuals functioning to be assessed in comparison to same-age peers. Furthermore, ASEBA is a multiaxial system that encompasses a family of standardized instruments for the assessment of behavioural and emotional problems as well as adaptive functioning. The five axes of the assessment model include parent (Axis I) and teacher (Axis II) reports, cognitive (Axis III) and physical (Axis IV) assessments as well as the direct assessment of children (Axis V) (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). The use of different ASEBA instruments provides a s tandardized and uniform methodology to incorporate information from multiple sources. Furthermore, all ASEBA instruments are empirically based. In accordance with the empirical approach, the construction of the ASEBA forms involved a series of steps (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Initially, a collection of potential symptom behaviours (i.e., items) was derived from multiple sources. These items were operationally defined in such a manner that respondents not trained in psychological theory could use them. In accordance with general item-development procedures, pilot tests were conducted to evaluate the clarity of items, response scales and item distribution. Finally, items that could differentiate between individuals who were not functioning well and their well functioning same-age peers were retained. Multivariate statistical analyses were applied to the retained items in order to identify syndromes of problems that co-occur. Syndromes were identified purely on the basis of co-occurrence, without any link to a particular cause. Subsequently, the syndromes of co-occur ring problem items were used to construct scales. These scales were used to assess individuals in order to assess the degree to which they exhibit each syndrome. Since all ASEBA instruments are empirically based, findings can be compared on the basis of the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems, thereby providing a clearer picture of cross-cultural similarities and disparities of different emotional and behavioural problems. In terms of the historical evolution of the system, ASEBA originated to provide a more differentiated assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology than the DSM. When ASEBA was developed, the first edition of the DSM (APA, 1952) had only two categories for childhood disorders, which included adjustment reactions of childhood and schizophrenic reaction childhood type (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). In contrast to the DSM, the first ASEBA publication highlighted more syndromes of emotional and behavioural problems (APA, 1952). Moreover, based on factor analyses, Achenbach (1966) identified two broad groupings of problems for which he coined the terms â€Å"Internalizing† and â€Å"Externalizing.† As described earlier, Internalizing Problems included problems with the self, such as anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and Somatic Complaints, without any apparent physical cause. On the other hand, Externalizing Problems included problems with other people, as well as problems linked to non-conformance to social norms and mores, such as aggressive and delinquent behaviour. Although all ASEBA forms are used extensively in clinical and research environments, the Child Behavior Checklist is the most widely recognized measure for the assessment of emotional and behavioural problems (Greenbaum et al., 2004; Webber Plotts, 2008). Child Behavior Checklist An essential part and the cornerstone of Achenbachs multiaxial, empirical system is the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Although the CBCL assesses social competencies as well as problem behaviours, it is widely recognized as a measure of emotional and behavioural problems as opposed to social competencies. In fact, researchers suggest that the CBCL is the most extensively utilized measure for the assessment of problem behaviours among children and adolescents as observed by their parents and caregivers (Krol et al., 2006; Greenbaum et al., 2004). Although there have been multiple revisions to the initial CBCL, all versions have the same format and consist of two distinct sections. The first section measures social competencies. Parents are asked to respond to 20 questions regarding the childs functioning in sports, miscellaneous activities, organizations, jobs and chores, and friendships. Items also cover the childs relations with significant others, how well the child plays and works alone, as well as his/her functioning at school. Finally, respondents describe any known illnesses or disabilities, the issues that concern them the most about the child, and the best things about the child (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The second section assesses problem behaviour and consists of 118 items that describe specific emotional and behavioural problems, along with two open-ended items for reporting additional problems. Examples of problem items include â€Å"acts too young for age†, â€Å"cruel to animals†, â€Å"too fe arful or anxious†, and â€Å"unhappy, sad or depressed†. Problem behaviours are organized in a hierarchical factor structure that consists of eight correlated first-order or narrowband syndromes, two correlated second-order or broadband factors (i.e., Internalizing and Externalizing Problems) and an overall Total Problems factor. Parents/caregivers are asked to rate the child with regard to how true each item is at the time of assessment or within the past 6 months. The following scale is used: 0 = not true (as far as you know), 1 = somewhat or sometimes true, and 2 = very true or often true. In the case of respondents with poor reading skills, a non-clinically trained clincian can also admisnter the CBCL (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). For respondents who cannot read English but can read another language, translations are available in over 85 languages (Berube Achenbach, 2008). Development of the CBCL. The first version of the CBCL dates back to 1983. To date, there have been two revisions of the CBCL; the first one in 1991 followed by the second in 2001, leading to considerable improvements in the measure. The main weakness of the initial CBCL was that comparisons across different age groups and respondents were problematic since syndromes had the same names but different items across different age forms (i.e., 4 to 5, 6 to 11, 12 to 16 years) as well as across different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, teacher report form [TRF], and the youth self report [YSR]) To rectify the problem, the 1991 version included two new types of syndromes, the core and cross-informant syndromes. Core syndromes represented items that clustered together consistently across age and gender groupings on a single instrument. Cross-informant syndromes were based on those items from the core syndromes that appear on at least two of the three different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, TRF, and YSR) (Greenbaum et al., 2004). These revisions facilitated comparisons across different age groups and informants. Moreover, the 1991 version of the CBCL also had new national level norms, which included norms for seventeen and eighteen year olds. Apart from practical benefits, changes such as a broader age range and precise criteria for different developmental levels, genders and type of respondents, helped make the CBCL and ASEBA instruments more accurately representative of the developmental perspective of child psychopathology (Greenbaum et al.). Achenbach (1991) also conducted exploratory principal factor analyses of the syndrome scales. Based on the loadings of different syndromes, Achenbach identified Anxious/Depressed, Withdrawn, and Somatic Complaints as indicators of Internalizing Problems, whereas Aggressive and Delinquent Behavior were identified as indicators of Externalizing Problems. Since Social Problems, Thought Problems and Attention Problems did not load consistently on either second-order factor, they were not placed in any group (Achenbach, 1991; Greenbaum et al., 2004). Although Internalizing and Externalizing Problems identify different types of behaviour, the two categories are not mutually exclusive and may co-occur within the same individual. This is supported by research findings that indicate that there was a correlation between the two groups in both clinic-referred (.54) and non-referred (.59) samples matched on the basis of age, sex, race, and income (Achenbach, 1991). Description of the current CBCL. The current CBCL was published in 2001 and covers ages 6 to 18 years (CBCL/6-18; Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). The CBCL/6-18 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001) provides raw scores, T- scores and percentiles for the following: (1) the three competence scales (Activities, Social, School); (2) the Total Competence scale; (3) the eight cross-informant syndromes; (4) Internalizing and Externalizing Problems and (5) Total Problems. The cross-informant syndromes of the CBCL/6-18 include Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/Depressed, Attention Problems, Rule-Breaking Behavior, Social Problems, Somatic Complaints, Thought Problems, and Withdrawn/Depressed. As far as similarities and differences from previous versions are concerned, the current CBCL introduced some major and a few minor changes. One major change was the introduction of the DSM-oriented scales, based on which CBCL and other ASEBA forms can now be scored in terms of scales that are oriented toward categories of the fourth edition of the DSM (A.P.A., 1994). The introduction of the DSM-oriented scales has combined the categorical and empirical approaches and enables users to view problems in both the categorical and dimensional approaches (Achenbach, Dumenci Rescorla, 2003; Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The DSM-oriented scales include six categories, namely Affective Problems, Anxiety Problems, Somatic Problems, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity problems, Oppositional Defiant Problems as well as Conduct Problems. These scales are based on problem items that mental health experts from sixteen cultures across the world rated as being consistent with particular DSM diagnostic cat egories. Similar to the empirically based syndromes, the DSM- oriented scales also have age-, gender- and respondent-specific norms. Another major change was that new normative data was collected using multistage probability sampling in forty U.S. states as well as the District of Columbia. The selected homes were considered to be representative of the continental United States with respect to geographical region, socio-economic status, ethnicity and urbanization (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). Moreover, complex new analyses based on new clinical and normative samples were conducted. However, the eight syndromes and Internalizing and Externalizing groupings published in 1991 were replicated with minor changes. Research findings indicated that correlations between scores on the 1991 syndromes and their 2001 counterparts ranged from .87 to 1.00 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001